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THE 



FORESTS OF VERMONT, 

SUGAR MAPLE INDUSTRY, 

EXPERIMENTAL FARM WORK. 

Cattle Diseases, Etc., Etc. 



HIRAM A. CUTTING, M. D., PH. D., 

Secretary of the Board of Agriculture. 




VERMONT WATClhtil^£&&i^Ta^;^^URNAL PRESS. 



1886. 



^ 






THE FORESTS OF VERMONT, 

Considered in relation to Rain-fall, effect upon Climate and Profit 
in Tree Culture. 



That there is a connection between forest area, and the distribution 
and amount of rain-fall, no one at the present day will question. In 
the world at large this opinion is supported by so many well known 
facts, and so man}' critical observations, as well as bj' general histor}', 
that it leaves no reasonable doubt. But when We come to our own 
country, and more particularly to New England there are some found 
who think that the future will take care of itself and their interests being 
largely in timber lands, their desire to cut the same for their im- 
mediate profit leads them to say, and perhaps often believe, that small 
areas make no perceptible difference in results. Having made the 
most minute observations upon the wind and rain-fall I most sincere- 
ly believe they are often affected by even small areas of timber land ; 
often by as small a tract as one thousand acres. Of course there 
must be some general principle underlying the whole and I believe 
that to be that the atmosphere in and around a forest is cooler than 
over cultivated fields, and that the cooler air rising from a forest 
often retains, by condensation into clouds that fall in showers, moisture 
that otherwise would pass over without precipitation. Among our 
hills there seems to be what we might call paths for showers and cer- 
tain hills and certain valley's are sure to get more than their share. 

Now in my records I find that those paths have changed considerably 
during the last forty years, and that such change has seemed to be 
brought about by the change in timber area. Some hills formerly 
wooded that received abundant showers, now denuded do not lie in 
their usual path and hence the streams and springs of that section 
have failed or dried up, when formerly perennial. The change in 
the forests in this section have seemed to send the path of showers 
toward the highest of the White Mountains of New Hamphire, Mount 
Washington more especiall}^ and hence the summer rain-fall has 
greatl}' increased there, while it has almost equally decreased here. 
References to the accompan3'ing tables will at once convince you that 
such seems to be a fact. Certainly something has effected the change 
and as our forest area has been greatly diminished there seems a 
cause while everything else, as far as we can know, remains the same. 
Hon. Benj. A. Willis, of New York, says that the distribution 
of water supply, if not the amount, is beyond doubt affected by the 
forests ; that their existence is indispensable to public health ; that 
they are needful to preserve the supply of our rivers, and to protect 
our fields and cities from floods, desolation and destruction. 



4 

Hon. Franklin B. Hough saj's that this growing tendency to floods and 
droughts can be directly ascribed to the clearing up of woodlands, by 
which the rains quickly find their way into the streams, often swell- 
ing them into destructive floods, instead of sinking into the earth to 
re-appear as springs. Aside from the direct efforts of shelter and 
shade afforded by trees, the evaporation of rain-drops that fall upon 
the leaves, and the chemical action of the leaves themselves, have a 
marked influence upon the humidity and temperature of the air beneath 
and around them. The contrast, in a very dry season, between an 
open and sunburnt pasture, and oneinterspersed with clumps of trees, 
must have been noticed by every careful observer, and the actual rel- 
ative profits of farms entirely without trees, and those liberally shad- 
ed, (everything else being equal,) will show, at least in grazing dis- 
tricts, the advantage of the latter in the value of their annual pro- 
ducts. The fact that furniture in houses too much shaded will mould 
is a familiar and suggestive instance of the humid infiuence of trees, 
and the aggregate results of woodland shade may well explain the 
fullness of streams and springs in the forest, which dry up and dis- 
appear when it is removed. 

Hon. Warren Higley, of New York, President of the Forestry 
Congress, says : There is abundant evidence in America of the effects 
of the cutting oflT the forests. In Central New York streams that 
thirty or forty years ago kept the ponds well filled for the saw-mill 
and grist-mill, and furnished a never-failing supply of running water 
for the farm, are now dry in summer, with the exception of here and 
there a stagnant pool ; the dam is decayed and washed away, the 
mills gone, and the once picturesque scene is changed to that of 
desolation. Yet, with the warm rains of spring and the melting 
snows, the streams overflow their banks, the swift waters carry away 
fences, bridges, and embankments. Spring opens later. The young 
cattle were wont to be turned into the wood-sheltered pasture about 
the first of April ; now they are kept shut up until the middle of May. 
Peach orchards that were sure to be loaded every year with luscious 
fruit have almost disappeared, and the crop is the exception rather 
than the rule. The extremes of heat and cold are greater, and 
droughts in summer and floods in spring-time are more frequent and 
more destructive. Trace the stream from its source and the cause of 
these things is apparent. The old tamarack swamp that used to sup- 
ply the boys and girls with aromatic gum, and in which the creek had 
its source, has all been cut away. The thickly wooded black-ash 
swamps, through which the stream ran in its course to the lake, have 
been cleared, and their marshy areas have given place to cultivated 
fields and pastures. The cutting away the forests from the head- 
waters and the banks of this stream accounts for the changes I have 
noted, and this picture, I doubt not, is a very familiar one in the New 
England and Middle States. It is not difficult for men who know 
the effects of cutting the timber from small areas around the head- 
waters of the smaller streams to understand why summer navigation 
in the Mississippi, the Missouri, and the Ohio has become difficult 
and at times impossible where it was easy and constant a few years 
ago ; or why the Hudson and the Connecticut are much lower in sum- 



mer and higher in spring than in former years. The partial deforest- 
ing of the Adirondack region has materially affected the flow of the 
Hudson, the Mohawk, the Black, and other rivers, and snfficientlj^ 
demonstrated the fact that were this great watershed of New York 
stripped of its forest covering, the Empire State would lose her 
prestige and New York city her rank as the first commercial city of 
the new world. 

Under a joint resolution of our legislature in 1882, Gov. J. L. 
Barstow appointed a commission to inquire into the subject of fores- 
try evils in Vermont and to suggest remedies. This commission ad- 
dressed circulars, asking questions relative thereto, to the representa- 
tives, selectmen, listers, postmasters and many prominent men in the 
State and in its report it says : The answers to questions in regard to 
the effect of the removal of the forests upon the springs, streams and 
ponds of the state, with scarcely an exception, tell the same story : 
that the water suppl}' is year by year failing, and that the smaller 
springs and streams which had never until recentl}' been known to 
fail often become totally dry in a dry season. The replies to this 
question are more full and specific than to any other. A verj'^ few 
say they notice no changes. Only two of the several hundred ex- 
press the positive opinion that there is no change in their vicinit}', 
and very many over all parts of the state give facts in detail which 
are certainly of a very alarming character. It is evident from the 
replies that this phase of the question is the one which has engaged 
the attention of the people and excited more universal interest than 
any other. These changes are generally admitted to be the greatest 
of the many evil results of the devastation of our forests. 

There are many specific statements of the diminution of the water 
supply in particular streams within a certain number of years; of 
mills without power ; of good trout brooks of fifty j^ears ago now nearly 
dry in summer; with other statements of interest, and the main fact 
remains that our water supply is, at least, more erratic and fitful and 
in many places smaller, during the necessar}' season for the growth of 
crops, than formerly. 

At Lancaster, New Hampshire, on the Connecticut river, an old 
resident reports ' ' an alarming decrease in the water of the streams 
and springs during the past sixty years, and especially during the 
last twent3'-five years, within which period the smaller timber also 
has been removed. Israel's River in my boyhood was a large mill- 
stream eight or ten rods wide, with sufficient water to carry a very 
large amount of machinery the year round. Now it is an insignifi- 
cant stream, with, from May to November, not more than half the 
water it had fifty years ago, and not more than two-thirds it had 
twenty-five years since. Other streams have suflfered in the same 
way, and the springs have, if possible, suffered more than the streams. 
Many, once thought to be never-failing, are now for long periods dry. 
That the cutting off of the forests accounts very largely for this change 
I consider as sure as that eflTect follows cause, and the result is 
hastened by the I'eckless methods in use. Instead of cutting timber 
that is matured, everything is cut to the size of five or six inches in 
diameter, and what remains is cut into fire-wood, or burned at once, 



leaving a dreaiy waste. In Lancaster the timber and wood are near- 
ly all gone, and the mountains are being stripped to their summits." 

The Forestr}' Commission of New Hamphire, says : '' Certain local 
effects are unquestioned, and come under daily observation. Exten- 
sive clearings in the vicinity of manj- of our farm-houses and villages 
have brought about changes that prove anything but advantageous, 
adding in many ways to the rigor of our climate, and rendering such 
localities less desirable for residence than formerly. Trees may not 
be so much needed by us for shelter and protection as on a Western 
prairie ; but the treeless hilltop or hillside is certainly less favorable 
for our cattle and our crops, our orchards and our gardens, for health, 
and even for home comfort, than the same location would be with 
sheltering belts of timber to break the force of storm in winter, and 
to check the drying influence of the wind throughout the year. 
We may call these changes local if we will, and believe their eflfect 
on atmospheric conditions will be as difficult to determine in the fu- 
ture as in the past ; but let these changes go on for a generation or 
two longer as they are now going on, becoming general instead of 
local, and who doubts their effect on both climate and rain-fall, as 
well as water-supply ? Again : It may be said that the forest area of 
our state is too limited in an}' case to have much influence on our 
climate and rain-fall, since both are controlled by conditions covering 
a much wider area of territory. But when the woodman's axe is as 
busy as it now is east and west, north and south of us, we cannot fail 
to see that injurious changes are coming, greater than any as yet ex- 
perienced, and that our best, perhaps our only, means of protection 
against them, as they may still further affect climate, rain-fall, and 
water-supply, is the more prudent management of our forestry 
interests." 

As the watering of the land is by evaporation from the ocean which 
evaporation is the same each year or else the ocean would soon over- 
flow the low land, it can be asserted, and often is, that the aggregate 
rain-fall is the same and this may be true and yet our field crops 
perish b}' drought. Note what I have said about showers and much 
the larger part of our rain-fall during summer is from showers. 
That wooded hill-tops have abundant rain does not help our summer 
crops in valleys. In July 1884 we received two and one-half inches 
of rain from showers and Mount Washington twenty-three inches yet 
observation shows, and our school books teach, that where the coun- 
try is all wooded the summits of mountains do not receive as much 
rain-fall as the valle3's. 

Is there not a lesson in this ? Tlie rain-fall is increasing on the 
summit of the White Mountains but decreasing in the cultivated 
valleys. Hence 3'ou see that while the same number of gallons of 
water may every year fall in the United States, it may become even 
too arid to cultivate, as the bleak and desolate mountains maj' be de- 
luged and severe showers prostrate our crops and destroy our meadows. 
Yet the same amount of water will fall somewhere. It is the stead}' 
rain without wind that is wealth to the husbandman and that a rea- 
sonable restoration of forests will doubtless provide. The following 
deduction as made from tables furnished the New Hamphire Forestry 




y/ucluntions in .jlmiura J{tii,tf'ult onihe 
^itccrttic Sea - cotcsi^ ,^/-f''Ht: io Jltiti-iflanA; 
J' tun, Smiihiottian JiuJ, Tfihlt , b>f C.^.&cholh. 




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ConnecUccii ~l^a.Hey /^Vo/i Observtjtxons 
7>y JSr.^. Culling, .^r.Ji., I.vnenhtirg;n. 

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.35 
.85 


















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rtiiciitaHons in .Annual Ifainful/ „/ Ihe Vpfttr 
CoTinectieut Va.lteu -from ObservtUioi^i by 



rixiclu^tions in .Jlnn.ua7 Jfain- 
-faU nJ. y^ciAi* P'iti^^c. ; :fruni Ob' 
.seri/-,t.liorrS hij Iht. Vfi'nilipiseo^e 



4 



Commission I submit ; with some of the tables and chart of the de- 
ductions therefrom, and also complete tables of observations at Lunen- 
burgh. The graphical chart also gives the record of Mr. Hazen 
Doton, of Woodstock. This chart is worthy of careful study. 

The observations made at Lunenburgh, Vt., it will be seen, cover 
a series of thirty-eight years, and give an average of 40.03 inches of 
rain j'early, between the extremes of 31.14 inches in 1880 and the 
unusual amount of 60.91 inches in 1872, when more than twelve 
inches is recorded in the single month of August. Twenty-four of 
the above thirty-eight years fall below the average, but the larger 
portion of these years of deficiency are in the first half of the period, 
and not in the last half. Again, dividing the series into seven 
periods of five years (beginning for convenience with 1850), it is the 
first two periods and the last which fall below the average ; the re- 
maining four periods, coming down to 1879 and near the present 
time, are all above the average, and two of them very much above it. 
The years 1880 to 1884 inclusive, give an average rain-fall of only 
34.78 inches, and mark a time of decided drouth. 1885 is below the 
average being 37.47 inches, and this year will be below also. 

The average rain-fall at Hanover, New Hampshire, for the last fif- 
teen years (all that have a complete record in the table) is only 30.05 
inches, which is in striking contrast with the record at Lunenburgh, 
about 75 miles further north, it being 10 inches greater. Here, too, 
the average for the last five years indicates a decisive falling off, but not 
a faring off suggested of necessity by the two five-year periods that 
precede. The same statements are true as to the record of observa- 
tions made at Woodstock, about eighteen miles from Hanover, New 
Hampshire. The average rain-fall of 36.73 inches drops suddenlv to 
32.51 inches during the last five years. 

At Weirs the annual average for twenty-five years has been 43.12 
inches ; and here again the average is well maintained, until the dry 
period from 1880 to 1885 is reached. 

At Concord, New Hamphire, during the same twenty-five j-ears, 
the average is 39.17 inches. All but the last of the five-year periods 
exceed the average, varying from 44.05 inches for the first period to 
33.11 inches for the last, and showing a very slight decrease from 
period to period. The twenty -years record furnished bj^ the late Mr. 
Tufts, of Dover, New Hampshire, are not entirely complete, but as it 
stands it also shows a gradual diminution of rain-fall, with the same 
abrupt falling oS of the record during the recent years of wide- 
spread drouth. 

On the other hand the observations on Mount Washington, New 
Hampshire, show a decided increase. Observations in Europe and 
elsewhere show less rain-fall upon mountain tops when the valleys are 
wooded but so far as I can get reliable information all observations 
seem to coincide of the increase of rainfall on mountains while the 
removal of timber causes decrease in valle3's. 

That you can see just how it stands I publish comparative observa- 
tions between Lunenburgh and Mount Washington, in a table follow- 
ing; the series at Lunenburo-h. 



8 



TABLE I. 

Amount in inches of monthly rain-fall (including melted snow) at Lunenburgh, Vt. 





























Yearly 


Snow in 


Y'rs. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


totals. 


winters. 


1848 


2.68 


4.75 


3.60 


1.12 


2.72 


1.84 


4.20 


3.82 


1.10 


5.84 


3.38 


5.95 


41.00 


71.00 
84.00 


1849 


2.25 


3.85 


6.10 


2.22 


2.47 


2.00 


4.00 


1.75 


2.20 


2.25 


3.71 


3.00 


35.80 


1850 


2.90 


3.95 


•4.50 


2.00 


3.60 


1.75 


3.90 


4.00 


2.05 


4.90 


3.50 


3.05 


40.10 


1851 


4.00 


1.15 


3.50 


7.10 


.85 


3.60 


4.18 


1.25 


2.80 


3.00 


1.60 


.57 


33.50 


52.00 


1852 


2.75 


3.75 


4.10 


6.25 


5.80 


4.20 


2.75 


2.00 


3.25 


3.75 


.45 


.95 


39.00 


48.00 


1863 


4. 


4.55 


2.10 


2.80 


3.10 


2.80 


4.20 


4.50 


3.15 


2.80 


4.00 


3.75 


41.75 


86.00 


1854 


54.80 


3.90 


3.25 


2.10 


2.20 


2.50 


1.10 


.76 


3.75 


4.20 


4.05 


4.00 


36.60 


100.00 


1855 


1.40 


2.25 


4.25 


3.75 


4.70 


5.80 


3.20 


2.50 


3.25 


2.20 


2.00 


2.95 


38.25 


76.00 
83.00 
79.00 
69.00 
75.00 
58.00 
99.00 
147.00 
101.00 


1856 


3.25 


3.00 


5.20 


2.10 


2.40 


3.75 


3.75 


3.20 


3.00 


3.15 


3.00 


4.00 


39.80 


1857 


2.60 


2.90 


4.50 


3.00 


2.80 


3.25 


3.50 


3.00 


2.95 


4.18 


2.50 


2.07 


37.25 


1858 


3.25 


3.00 


1.50 


4.10 


2.50 


2.85 


2.75 


3.50 


3.25 


3.80 


6.00 


3.00 


38.50 


1859 


1.07 


2.05 


4.25 


1.25 


2.75 


4.00 


2.25 


8.06 


4.50 


2.50 


2.85 


4.77 


35.30 


1860 


2.25 


2.16 


1.98 


1.56 


1.50 


1.06 


3.62 


9.06 


4.52 


2.32 


5.37 


3.50 


38.90 


1861 


3.20 


3.00 


2.95 


5.85 


6.75 


4.00 


6.00 


1.75 


5.U0 


4.62 


2.18 


1.70 


47.00 


1862 


3.80 


5.02 


3.66 


2.40 


1.75 


1.70 


2.75 


6.00 


4.00 


4.00 


6.75 


4.07 


45.80 


1863 


5.45 


1.40 


4.70 


2.85 


4.50 


1,50 


8.70 


2.90 


3.06 


3.60 


2.25 


6.10 


46.00 






























51.00 


1864 


2.63 


1.88 


2.92 


1.90 


6.85 


1.32 


2.00 


3.30 


2.75 


6.12 


3.70 


3.65 


39.02 


87.00 


1865 


3.35 


1.70 


6.13 


3.35 


6.56 


2.75 


3.92 


1.00 


4.62 


3.36 


2.96 


1.02 


39.69 






























41.00 


1866 


1.55 


3.36 


1.40 


2.50 


2.00 


3.00 


6.00 


5.25 


6.00 


1.95 


3.25 


1.85 


38.10 


73.00 


1867 


2.05 


4.30 


2.60 


2.70 


9.47 


3.75 


3.33 


3.76 


2.00 


1.50 


2.46 


1.75 


39.65 


68.00 


1868 


1.87 


1.45 


2.80 


1.30 


6.75 


4.40 


6.05 


1.83 


8.02 


1.3D 


7.16 


2.46 


43.37 


114.00 


1869 


4.30 


4.12 


4.45 


2.05 


2.85 


5.00 


2.75 


2.60 


2.60 


8.10 


2.21 


3.02 


43.95 


100.00 


1870 


4.55 


4.00 


1.47 


2.50 


3,60 


3.50 


4.34 


6.42 


3.00 


3.95 


6.52 


1.30 


45.65 


55.00 


1871 


3.15 


2.10 


3,65 


5.72 


3.62 


2.12 


4.35 


7.35 


2.30 


3.90 


1.00 


3.70 


42.96 


95.00 


1872 


2.00 


3.05 


2.70 


2.00 


8.20 


7.33 


7.25 


12.58 


3.48 


2.27 


5.05 


5.00 


60.91 


167.00 


1873 


3.85 


3.35 


4.50 


2.65 


2.64 


2.00 


3.95 


2.50 


4.75 


5.45 


2.22 


2.65 


40.61 


117.00 


1874 


3.70 


1.80 


2.25 


4.05 


2.96 


7.06 


4.98 


4.38 


1.35 


1.15 


2.71 


3.07 


39.45 


107.00 


1875 


3.60 


4.03 


3.00 


2.85 


3.73 


5.70 


2.55 


3.45 


4.35 


5.26 


2.92 


1.40 


42.84 


103.00 


1876 


3.55 


3.60 


3.00 


2.75 


4.70 


7.05 


5.22 


1.35 


5.94 


1.50 


1.67 


2.82 


43.15 


70.00 


1877 


2.15 


.65 


6.40 


2.35 


1.05 


3.00 


4.22 


5.95 


2.05 


4.70 


3.65 


1.87 


38.04 


32.25 


1878 


1.65 


.80 


2.25 


6.15 


2.45 


4.65 


3.35 


4.45 


1.20 


2.60 


2.70 


2.30 


34.55 


103.00 


1879 


3.45 


2.75 


3.15 


2.70 


1.46 


5.80 


5.00 


4.67 


3.78 


2.20 


4.18 


4.30 


43.43 


71.75 


1880 


2.25 


2.60 


1.47 


1.40 


3.05 


2.30 


2.45 


3.79 


2.40 


4.70 


2.18 


2.55 


31.14 


191.00 


1881 


2.90 


1.70 


2.60 


I.OO 


4.55 


2.20 


3.09 


2.75 


2.45 


4.86 


5.19 


4.92 


38.20 


117.00 


1882 


8.75 


3.75 


1.75 


1.55 


2.20 


4.93 


2.85 


1.05 


6.26 


1.45 


1.27 


2.40 


32.21 


113.00 


1883 


2.10 


3.65 


2.40 


1.30 


4.00 


4.34 


4.80 


1.18 


2.90 


4.50 


2.83 


2.60 


36.60 


116.00 


1884 


3.30 


2.30 


4.60 


1.26 


4.45 


1.95 


2.60 


2.55 


2.65 


5.00 


2.50 


2.80 


36.76 


104.50 


1885 


3.40 


2.35 


2.25 


.60 


1.00 


3.88 


6.46 


5.77 


3.00 


4.61 


2.55 


1.70 


37.47 


60.25 


1886 


2.65 


1.67 


.90 


.75 


2.37 


1.70 


2.32 


4.70 














Av'ge 


3.01 


2.89 


3.34 


2.74 


3.61 


3.54 


8.98 


3.70 


3.38 


3.61 


3.23 


2.94 


40.03 





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Graphical Chart of Variations in Rain-Fall. 

FROM NENA/ HAMPSHIRE FOFJE^'^'^^ REPORT. 



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10 



TEMPERATURE. 



Forests are notabl}' cooler in summer and warmer in winter than 
cleared land, and further the}' are cooler in a clear sunny day and 
warmer during the ensuing night ; hence it can be well understood why 
the temperature changes as well as the rainfall by the clearing up of a 
large section. The result is warmer days and cooler nights, as the 
synulizing effect of the forest temperature is lost. The daily, month- 
ly and yearly means of temperature may show no special change, yet 
the change will be apparent to the people and to the crops. 
There will be earlier and later frosts, that are erratic and par- 
tial, killing vegetation here and there, though not on high land 
where the wind is felt, or under shelter of woodland where the 
breeze is not felt. Almost every person has become aware of 
these changes without actual observations with instruments, but 
accurate observers will be assured of such facts if they take the 
trouble to observe their daily range, though the actual average 
is nearly as before. An extended series of observations show 
some discrepancy, however, as the following tables will disclose. 
While the average temperature of the j-ear is about as usual, the av- 
erage monthly temperature is more erratic : yet, as I before remarked, 
it is this daily range that seems most effectual, and yet doubtless the 
j'earl}' mean will in a series of years be found to average lower if 
figured as now. 



11 



TABLE tfO. 3. 

OBSERVATIONS ON TEMPERATURE OF LUNENBURGH. 

Latitude, 44° 27' 43." Longitude, 71° 40' 47." Elevation, 1210 feet. 





Average monthly Temperature in degrees and hundredths. 


fi 


>H 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


April. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


1848 


19.50 


17.00 


~3(U0 


41.30 


50.00 


67.65 


70.30 


69.25 


.58.60 


44.60 


26.00 


2P.40 


42.90 


1849 


10.70 


14.50 


30.00 


40.60 


53.70 


58.90 


69.60 


64.75 


56.40 


40.90 


30.40 


19.50 


39.99 


1860 


10.00 


14.07 


25.50 


35.00 


55.00 


69.50 


67.60 


64.00 


58.30 


50.00 


29.73 


21.00 


41.64 


18.51 


20.50 


14.22 


31.75 


39.16 


57.00 


62.60 


64.26 


70.00 


51.50 


40.00 


25.80 


19.00 


41.31 


1852 


20.50 


19.28 


21.00 


32.00 


50.50 


64.50 


69.0Q 


65,50 


58.00 


43.00 


30.00 


21.00 


41.19 


1853 


22.00 


12.70 


23.50 


38.00 


54.00 


63.50 


69.75 


67.00 


56.50 


43.50 


28.70 


23.75 


41.91 


1854 


10.50 


9.00 


22.34 


34.16 


52.30 


67.10 


70.40 


64.60 


57.25 


45.75 


32.30 


15.25 


40.07 


1865 


21.70 


14.30 


29.20 


39.60 


40.80 


63.70 


67.20 


68.25 


60.00 


43.75 


30.00 


21.00 


41.63 


1856 


22.00 


18.50 


20.40 


35.60 


51.30 


67.40 


68.50 


64.00 


57.70 


44.00 


28.90 


20.00 


41.61 


1857 


14.20 


20.00 


24.50 


32.70 


50.60 


65.30 


60.80 


62.30 


52.00 


42.50 


3100 


19.60 


39.62 


1853 


8.30 


23.10 


24.70 


34.60 


50.00 


59.16 


65.30 


62.40 


53.00 


42.50 


33.40 


21.60 


39.83 


1869 


17.75 


19.00 


25.50 


33.00 


51.50 


63.00 


64.50 


67.00 


57,00 


39.50 


34.00 


14.00 


40.48 


186U 


18.20 


16.00 


28.50 


38.00 


58.50 


66.60 


69.C0 


66.00 


55.50 


49.00 


39.00 


19.00 


43.60 


1861 


19.50 


22.00 


27.00 


41.50 


48.50 


63.25 


68.00 


66.00 


64.00 


45.00 


32.00 


21.00 


42.31 


1862 


16.00 


19.50 


26.50 


39.00 


56.00 


63.00 


68.00 


62.00 


69.50 


48.00 


30.00 


20.00 


42.21 


1863 


24.00 


19.00 


19.20 


36.10 


59.20 


64.30 


70.20 


70.00 


56.00 


47.00 


26.70 


18.40 


42.51 


1864 


18.00 


20.60 


31.00 


41.00 


55.00 


68.20 


71.90 


70.90 


56.88 


48.10 


33.86 


22.56 


44.75 


1865 


14.80 


19.06 


33.80 


40.97 


49.21 


67.30 


60.84 


70.82 


66.55 


37.42 


34.56 


24.46 


42.48 


1866 


14.45 


20.35 


27.50 


37.98 


45,10 


69.00 


73.26 


60.90 


52.37 


48.68 


45.72 


20.91 


43.02 


1867 


9.62 


23.52 


24.61 


39.10 


49.34 


65.97 


70.06 


64.83 


49.37 


44.93 


30.05 


10.90 


4019 


1868 


11.69 


8.87 


28.45 


34.61 


53.04 


63.65 


72.07 


67.26 


64.98 


41.49 


29.55 


14.86 


40.04 


1869 


19.27 


20.00 


19.67 


38.80 


51.91 


61.78 


68.19 


63,83 


62.07 


43.30 


30.63 


22.03 


41.78 


1870 


22.08 


16.31 


23.89 


43.31 


64.08 


69.12 


72.57 


67.63 


60.42 


46.69 


33.71 


22.15 


44.38. 


1871 


13.74 


17.42 


34.45 


42.00 


53.99 


64.92 


68.18 


66.86 


66.21 


47.75 


26.69 


17.27 


42.37 


1872 


14.62 


16.31 


16.72 


38.74 


54.88 


66.95 


70.43 


69,66 


59.77 


45.48 


31.80 


9.09 


41.20 


1873 


12.69 


15.20 


24.31 


38.69 


51.85 


62.17 


69.66 


65.48 


67.00 


47.10 


23.37 


19.97 


40.62 


1874 


20.26 


17.40 


24.84 


31.08 


51.50 


64.17 


70.45 


63.76 


68.61 


46.42 


27.68 


15.26 


40.95 


1875 


5.96 


9.79 


21.77 


33.47 


62.06 


61.43 


64.96 


66.73 


51.96 


41.22 


24.05 


18.44 


37.66 


1876 


19.39 


16.17 


25.95 


37.04 


60.18 


65.57 


68.15 


65.48 


55.22 


40.28 


34.33 


12.00 


40.69 


1877 


9.78 


24.10 


27.70 


42.40 


52.48 


63.99 


68.96 


66.84 


. 58.71 


43.83 


36.86 


24.36 


43.38 


1878 


15.02 


20.83 


32.41 


46.70 


52.10 


61.88 


68.46 


66.70 


58.82 


48.72 


32.20 


21.19 


43.67 


1879 


13.08 


13.00 


25.84 


35.80 


54.73 


60.82 


66.43 


60.92 


64.05 


50.27 


31.61 


21.79 


40.69 


1880 


24.41 


21.74 


24.10 


40.10 


57.85 


62.67 


65.63 


64.51 


69.08 


43.28 


27.85 


15.88 


42.25 


188"l 


9.03 


18.25 


32.64 


37.77 


56.79 


57.50 


65.72 


66.32 


62.90 


44.16 


32.00 


28.45 


42.62 


1882 


13.27 


20.05 


25.33 


34.16 


46.78 


61.93 


66.52 


65.62 


57.30 


48.11 


30.64 


18.64 


40.69 


1883 


9.87 


15.00 


16.83 


36.90 


62.07 


66.56 


66.12 


63.41 


55.95 


41.51 


34.33 


17.43 


39.66 


1884 


9.09 


21.80 


24.86 


39.23 


51.49 


65.49 


64.61 


64.76 


68.38 


43.59 


30.55 


21.66 


41.29 


1885 


15.39 


8.75 


15.63 


41.07 


62.99 


61.70 


66.16 


61.41 


53.27 


45.73 


35.63 


22.97 


40.89 


1886 


15.39 


25.24 


44.08 


85.26 


59.87 


59.87 


66.32 


64.52 








19.a6 




Mea 
1886 


n to 
15.54 


17.28 


26.82 


37.89 


52.50 


64.21 


67.94 


65.43 


56.65 


44.66 


31.46 


41.55 



12 

This shows that the last thirteen years indicate an average decrease 
of nearly one degree from the twenty-five previous 3'ears, and reduce 
the mean one-fourth of one degree for the entire period. During this 
time there has been a ver}' large amount of timber removed from a 
radius of fort}^ miles, probably more than from any other section of 
New England where observations have been kept. 

For the reasons already given j^ou will doubtless admit that all 
waste places, and those where the crops do not pay a profit, should be 
returned to forest. To do this it is necessary to keep cattle out, as 
the}^ will, more or less, injure every sapling in the pastures, and, 
when injured, the}' never make perfect trees. In my experiments in 
tree-growing 1 find that a healthful tree of almost an}' kind will make 
a diameter of sixteen or seventeen inches in twenty-five years, and 
many yield a handsome profit in that time ; hence 

TREE CULTURE FOR PROFIT 

may be as good an investment as we can make. If a Vermont man 
wishes to invest either in the state or outside of it, nothing is more 
sure of giving a substantial profit. Let us see what D. C. Burson of 
Kansas, sa^'s in an address at the Forestry Congress at St. Paul : 

"More able tongues have talked ; more gifted minds have thought ; 
more ready pens have written upon the great future necessities of 
forest tree planting. But all the talking, thinking and writing, have 
so far availed comparatively little. Why is it? Because too many 
look upon it as an act of benevolence, thinking they must metamor- 
phose themselves into philanthropists before they can set out a grove 
of forest trees, while a few, perchance, will set it out with a feeling 
of pride, while others may do it for laonor or fame. But is benevo- 
lence, philanthropy, pride, honor or fame, the motive power that im- 
pels the progressive car in this, the nineteenth century ? No ! It is 
mone}' — the love of mone}', or the anticipation of money. Then let 
us consider tree planting in its true light ; a light that will illumine 
the mind of every American citizen, — the light of money making." 

" Yes ! if we do that we strike the keynote, whose music will vibrate 
throughout the length and breadth of our Western plains. Our cap- 
italists. East, West, North or South, all invest their money for the 
purpose of increase ; their sole object is to accumulate. Our mer- 
chants do not invest their mone}' in dry goods and groceries, and 
work and worry over their business for the sole purpose of accommo- 
dating their friends and neighbors with the necessaries of life. The 
capitalist does not invest in bank or railroad stock with the spirit or 
feeling of a philanthropist. Vanderbilt, Garretl or Gould, does not 
extend railroads over our plains or along our vallej's for the purpose 
of assisting the poor granger to get his few bushels of corn or wheat 
to market. The millionaire who has his palatial mansion and is en- 
joying all the comforts of life, does not invest his surplus capital in 
corner lots, fine dwellings or massive blocks, for the purpose of 
beautifying the city or giving his poor neighbor a home. We do not 
invest in electric lights or telephone stocks to make the blind see or 
the deaf hear. But in each and every one of these investments the 
one great object is to make money. Then if this is the motive power 



13 

in everything that is progressive, it is folly to look at tree planting in 
any other light. And in that light alone, 3'^es, in that electrif3ang 
light, we shall for a few minutes consider tree planting. For we think 
without being in the least egotistical, we have the power to show that 
forest tree planting will make a safer investment and bring in larger 
and more satisfactory returns than any other business that man can 
embark in. But in this enterprise 3'ou cannot sow and reap the same 
year ; 3'OU sow in your prime and reap in 3'our decline, and to the 
benefit of your children who follow after. And to illustrate this point 
and to show it in the most practical light, we will take a kind and 
thoughtful parent, who has a bright and promising son of five sum- 
mers, in whom he takes a great interest, and wishes to see comforta- 
bly started in business when he attains the age of twentj'-one. Hav- 
ing $5,000 which he wishes him to have at that time — sixteen years 
hence — and wishing it to increase as fast as possible, he very 
natu rail}' asks himself, " How shall I invest it so that it will not 
only be safe, but increase in the greatest ratio?" Government bonds 
are safe ; but then the interest is so very small that his capital would 
onl}- increase about $8,000 in the sixteen years, even at compound 
interest." 

" He next investigates a real estate mortgage bearing six per 
cent interest. In this he finds his capital would only be about 
$10,000 when he wants to use it, but the father being desirous of a 
large increase, looks beyond bonds and mortgages, and beholds the 
treeless plains of the great West, which is fast settling up bj' the in- 
dustrious emigrant ; he sees that building material, especiall}' fence 
posts and railroad ties are in great demand, and that demand is fast 
increasing, while the material is decreasing in an equal if not a great- 
er ratio. He beholds a glorious future for the tree planter, his mind 
is now fully made up ; he will invest his $5,000 in Western lands and 
forest trees. He selects forty acres of good tillable land, for which 
he pa^'s $800, and encloses it with a good substantial fence, for which 
he pays $200 more, leaving $4,000 of the capital yet uninvested. He 
now puts the entire forty acres under a good state of cultivation, pre- 
parator}" to setting out in forest trees. He is somewhat at a loss to 
know what species of trees to plant, but he decides that it must either 
be Catalpa, White Ash, Russian Mulberry' or Black Walnut, but as 
his land is situated south of 44° north latitude, and fence posts and 
railroad ties being in the greatest demand and the most profitable of 
any wood he can raise, and the Catalpa having no superior for that 
purpose, (the tirpber lasting a century), and being a hardy tree and a 
fast grower, he decides that that shall be the tree. By adopting the 
usual plan of setting four by four feet each way, it will require 2,700 
trees per acre, or 108,000 to set the fortj' acres. He finds that to pre- 
pare the ground, bu}^ or raise the trees, set them out and cultivate as 
long as they require any attention, it will cost about $100 per acre, 
or the remaining $4,000. He has now the entire capital invested." 

" Let us look for the returns. The weeds and grass being kept down, 
he will let nature take its course, do her own trimming and pruning 
until they are eight years old. Of course the results are only imagi- 
nary, based upon the knowledge and experience of others, but we pro- 



14 

pose to be very liberal in our estimates. We will in the first place 
calculate on a loss of 25 per cent, that is we will suppose that by the 
extreme changes of climate 28,000 have either died or been so stunt- 
ed as to be worthless, which leave just 80,000 good thrift}' trees eight 
years old. It now becomes necessary to remove one-half of them, or 
40,000, each tree making at least one good fence post. A Catalpa 
post, even an inferior one, will always bring a good price, say twenty- 
five to thirty-five cents, but we will put them down at twent}' cents 
each ; calculating that the remaining timber of the trees being utilized 
for fire-wood, will pay for cutting and removing the posts. We now 
have 40,000 posts at twent}' cents each, making a total of $8,000. 
The remainder of the trees are left standing eight years longer, or 
until the son attains his majority and is read}' to start in business. 
The father puts the axe-men at work to remove them and convert 
them into ready cash. We of course have again to let imagination, 
experience and precedent do the calculations. We cannot take iso- 
lated cases and make comparison or we will estimate too largely, for 
we have heard of Catalpas sixteen years old, being twelve to fourteen 
inches in diameter, which would make two or three railroad ties, or 
ten or twelve fence posts , but as we would sooner be below than 
above, we will say that there can be realized on an average four good 
posts per tree, or 160,000 posts, which at twenty cents each would 
amount to S32,000; added to what we have from the first thinning 
we have a grand total of $40,000, or over 40 per cent per annum for 
the entire time." 

" Now I know that these results look incredulous, especially to a 
person who has never given the subject any thought ; but the expe- 
rience of many will bear me witness in these statements, and claim 
that even greater results can be attained, while others who have been 
reared in the woods, cradled in a sugar-trough, and, perchance, 
housed in a hollow tree, and spent the prime of their lives in cutting 
and burning valuable timber with no conception of its value, may sa}' 
that twenty cents for a fence post is an enormous price, and the av- 
erage farmer cannot afford to buy them. Well, for the benefit of that 
class let us make a large reduction, and put a Catalpa post that will 
last a hundred 3-ears at the same price of a Cottonwood that will not 
last two years — ten cents each — and yet we have $20,000, or about 
20 per cent per annum, two or three times as much as could be real- 
ized in bonds or mortgages. But it is unnecessar}^ to make any re- 
duction. Ten millions of Catalpa fence posts could be sold in Kan- 
sas today at twenty-five cents each, and as many railroad ties at 
double the price of an oak." 

"In making the above calculations we have said nothing about the 
land after the timber had been removed, neither have we said an}-- 
thing about taxes, so we will allow one to offset the other. We 
have also confined ourselves to dollars and cents, and said noth- 
ing about the pleasure and comfort derived from shade and wind- 
breaks. But the mission of this article is not to picture the beauties 
and pleasures of forest groves, or to calculate the untold value 
to fruit orchard, grain field or pasture lots, but it is to show 
just how many dollars and cents can be realized in a certain number 
of 3'ears by raising timber for commercial purposes." 



15 



TREE CULTURE IN VERMONT. 



It might be considered that in our state the realization of profit 
would be uncertain. But let us see. I have White Pine trees on my 
experimental farm, twenty-five 3'ears old and 17 inches in diame- 
ter. They should be set 1,261 to the acre, and they should average 
fifty feet in length that could be used for timber in that time, or one 
tree should produce 200 feet of inch boai'ds, worth four dollars. 
1,000 trees would be worth $4,000, less cost of culture and cutting. 
But this is an extreme case, you will sa}*, and so it is. Yet my trees 
wfere planted four feet apart, which would be 2,560 to the acre, and 
they can be grown that near together, but half the number ought do 
well, and that number should each be eighteen inches at stump, and 
six inches fifty feet from ground in twenty-five years of good culture. 
They would then be worth in boards as I have stated, but much more 
in staves or other small ware products. But let us consider. The 
land was worth little to begin with, the culture has not cost very 
much, as any farmer can raise a score of acres where he has good 
pine land, and if one-half or even one-fourth the sum were realized, 
what would pay better as an investment? Elm, I find in my experi- 
ments, will grow as large but not as high. Fir will reach three- 
fourths the size, and Butternut the same : hence the actual profit of 
tree culture is greater than any other pi'oduct of the farm. But with 
judicious thinning it can be made even more productive. The larger 
the tree the greater the capability of increase. 

The timber of our country, with scarcely an exception, grows by 
the addition of a ring of new wood annually next to the bark. If we 
suppose these rings of growth to be true circles and of equal width, 
their radii would be from year to year as follows : 

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. — an arithmetical series. 

The areas within these rings would be to each other as the squares 
of these radii, viz : 

1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, etc. — a geometrical series. 

The differences between these successive numbers would show the 
relative areas of the rings, or (if, for a given length, they could be 
separated and weighed), their value, and the numbers would be : 

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc. — an arithmetical series, 

of which the common difference is two. In other words, a tree will 
grow three times as much in weight and value during the fifth year 
as it did in the second ; three times as much in the eighth year as in 
the third, and so on, besides its increase in height. Furthermore, a 
large tree is more valuable than a small one, in proportion to its 
weight or solid contents, because it can be applied to more uses. 

From this it ma}' be seen that with judicious cutting of one-half 
the timber at twenty-five years the other half will have many times 
doubled its value the next twenty-five years ; so that almost fabulous 
interest ma}' be gained. The profits from fruit culture are also enor- 
mous, and require less amount of labor than most other products of 
the farm. It is well for all to consider the profits from forestry. It 
has proved remunerative in Europe, where it has been under govern- 



16 

ment patronage and protection for 150 years. There is no guesswork 
about the results there. The book-keeping is thorough and the bal- 
ance-sheet reliable. Prussia, from her 6,000,000 acres of state for- 
ests , receives an annual net income of about $7,000,000. Saxon}', 
from her 400,000 acres of forest lands, receives an annual net income 
of about $1,350,000. Bavaria, from her 3,000,000 acres, receives 
annually, after paying all expenses, a net profit of $4,500,000, and 
their forests are rapidly improving ; j^et this means a net profit after 
paying for all labor or improvements. 

TIMBER IN VTASTE PLACES. 

Viewed as an agricultural product, timber offers this distinguishing 
feature : it will grow in places where nothing else can be cultivated. 
A soil too coarse and meager for the cereals may be marveloush' pro- 
ductive in forest growth. Ravines and slopes too steep for an}' other 
useful product are the favorite seats of timber, and wherever a crev- 
ice is found in a rocky ledge the roots of a tree will burrow and 
spread, taking a hold so firm as to defy the storm, and acting me- 
chanically and chemically to disintegrate the rock and change its con- 
stituent elements into useful products. 

The roadside, the river bank, along the brook, and on the over- 
hanging cliff, a tree may always be earning wealth to its owner, in 
our densest settlements, and in the waste places of our most valuable 
lands. In many of the states laws have been enacted favoring the 
planting of trees along the highways, and a laudable emulation should 
be everywhere encouraged in the ornamentation of farms in this way. 
It is worthy of the consideration of our state legislature as to whether 
these plantings may not be made a requirement ; or be done at the 
cost of the owners, if they neglect it. 

THE ADAPTATION OF TREES TO DIFFERENT SITUATIONS.* 

When land is about to be put under wood, it is necessary to deter- 
mine on the species for which the soil and climate are adapted. In 
respect to the soil, its qualities can only be ascertained accurately by 
a knowledge of its chemical and mechanical composition ; but, guid- 
ed by experience, intelligent, practical men are often enabled to 
arrive at a tolerably sound judgment by simple inspection. The 
importance, however, of a comprehensive knowledge of the chemical 
qualities of soils will be understood, when it is considered that the 
inorganic or mineral ingredients of wood vary with the species ; and 
if the substances required by any particular kind of tree are not 
present in the soil, it is obvious that that species cannot be grown in 
perfection. A selection of the crop that will suit the soil is just as 
necessary in growing timber as in rearing agricultural produce ; and 
when an error is committed in the one case, the loss which is sus- 
tained in consequence is immensely greater than when a similar mis- 
take occurs in the other. Nor can rotation be altogether neglected 
in the rearing of wood. The same species should rarely be grown 
twice in succession. Scarcely any kind of land can produce two 
heavy crops of fir, one after the other. Cases, no doubt, are known 

*From Morton's Resources of Estates, p. 292—295. 



17 



in which larches have been planted on land newly cleared of heavy 
fir ; but they have seldom made much progress for at least a number 
of years. And except with fir after fir, and larch after larch, the test 
is not a completely accurate one. Hard wood, oak, ash and elm, 
grows luxuriantly after hard wood only on land which is rich in the 
mineral matters that are capable of full}' developing it. Very seldom 
will hard wood succeed after firs ; but firs grow well after hard wood 
in almost any instance. The necessity, not only for adapting the 
species of wood to be grown to the nature of the soil, but for observ- 
ing some sort of rotation in the raising of different kinds of trees, 
will be seen by a reference to the following table of inorganic an- 
alj'Ses, compiled from various reliable sources : 



Forest trees. 



Oak wood 

Oak bark* 

Oak leaves 

Elm wood 

Elm bark 

Beech wood 

Beech bark 

Horse-chestnut wood. 

Birch wood 

Poplar wood 

Poplar bark 

Poplar leaves 

Scotch fir woodt 

Scotch fir bark 

Scotch fir leaves 

Larch woodt 



Pi 

5.65 
3.50 
27.40 



13.72 
lO.nO 
2.04 
00 



•-'1.92 

2.22 

11.80 

2. 

lU.lO 

12.70 

32.60 

18.80 

28.50 

2-7!» j 15.99 

1.90 

10.50 

15 24 I 7.27 



3.01 

0.80 

3.60 

7.71 

3.19 

8.42 

17.10 

3.20 

2.50 

3.30 

1.00 

1.40 

19-76 

2.40 

3.10 

24.60 



50,58 
47.50 
16.70 
47.80 
72.70 
47.25 
37.50 
43-60 
43.80 
18.30 
35.10 
21.40 
31.74 
38.60 
36.80 
26.97 



o a 



10.90 
3.33 
1..59 
3. -.'9 
2.70 
1.5(; 
3.60 

10.10 
3.20 
4.20 
1.93 
7.10 
4.70 
1.79 



0.78 
0.30 



1.28 
0.62 
1.01 



1.20 
0.40 



0.90 
3.60 



m 



0.52 
1.10 

14.50 
3.07 
8.77 
1.09 
9.20 
7.50 
4 80 
3.30 
4.00 

11.50 
3.04 

17.30 

11.60 
3.60 



O.S 
0.38 



1.80 
1.17 
0,82 
0.60 
0.30 
3.00 
0.40 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
3.51 
0.60 
0.50 
4.25 



0.02 
0.03 



0.07 
0.03 



Analyst. 

Dennigen. 
Bertliier. 
De Saussure. 
Wrightson. 

Do. 
Liebig 

Hertwig 

Berthier. 

Do. 
DeSaussure. 

Do. 

Do. 
Bottinger. 
Hertwig. 

Do. 
Bottinger. 



*0.\ide of manganese in ash of oak bark, 7.20 per cent. 
tOxide of manganese in ash of fir wood, 18.17 per cent. 
jOxide of manganese in ash of larch wood, 13.15 per cent. 

From this table it is obvious that all soils cannot be alike suitable 
for every kind of timber ; elm and larch, for instance, contain a much 
larger proportion of potash than others, and hence would require a 
fine soil well fertilized with potash. Again, the poplar contains a 
large amount of both potash and phosphoric acid, showing that it 
will only grow luxuriantly on our best soil. 

CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT OP OUR NATIVE FORESTS. 

Cleaveland, in his work on forest management, says man's prog- 
ress from barbarism to civilization is indicated by the degree of skill 
he has attained in the cultivation of those products of the earth which 
minister to his necessities and comfort. As long as the natural re- 
sources are sufficient to supply his primary wants of food and cloth- 



18 

ing, he will make no effort to increase them, and it is onl}' as he is 
driven by the necessities of increasing demand and diminishing sup- 
pi}' that he exerts himself to secure relief b}' artificial means. 

Nature, therefore, as if she had been conscious that forest culture 
was too arduous an undertaking for primitive man, has furnished so 
abundant a supply that no deficienc}' or necessitj^ of economy is felt 
till the nation has acquired such a degree of intelligence as to be com- 
petent for the solution of the problem. 

Where shall we find, or how shall we create, the men who are com- 
petent to do the work? To judge from experience, our people 
appear not only to be ignorant of the first principles of forest culture, 
but unconscious even of the possibility of its application to the de- 
velopment of our native woods. The fact of such prevailing igno- 
rance rests not alone upon negative evidence. We have positive 
proof in abundance in the attempts which we often see at the "im- 
provement " of a piece of woodland when it is appropriated as the 
site of a residence. It is hard to conceive of anything more dismal 
or forlorn than the average result of the effort to impart a homelike 
aspect to such a place ; the dwelling, with its " span new " expression, 
standing in the midst of a multitude of tall poles, with tufts of leaves 
upon their tops, looking like fowls stripped of their feathers, and the 
bare ground fretted everywhere with freshlj' upturned roots, the sole 
remnants of the wild shrubbery which has been ruthlessly extermi- 
nated. 

In order to comprehend the principles of health}' forest growth, 
let us consider some of the processes of nature, and learn from 
them her requirements. 

If we plant the seed of a maple, linden, oak or ash tree by itself in 
the open ground in suitable soil, and suffer it to grow without moles- 
tation, simply guarding it from injury, we shall find that the first act 
of the young plant is to send out broad leaves, which serve among 
other purposes to shade completely the stem, and the ground imme- 
diately around it in which the roots are growing. As the tree grows, 
it maintains a symmetrical shape, the limbs spreading and the trunk 
increasing in size, in proportion to its height, but always preserving 
the condition of keeping the trunk and the ground for a considerable 
distance around it in the shadow of the foliage till mature age, when 
the roots have penetrated to such a depth as to be safe from injury, 
and the trunk is protected by thick layers of cork-like bark, which 
safely guards alike from heat and cold inner layers and young wood 
in which the sap is performing its functions. 

Such are the conditions to which nature adheres, if not interfered 
with by accident or design, and such, therefore, we may be sure are 
those iDCst adapted to healthy and vigorous growth. The fact that 
they are continually violated with apparent impunity serves only to 
show the wonderful power of nature to supply deficiencies and adapt 
herself to circumstances, but in artificial culture we should aim as 
nearly as possible to imitate the course she would pursue if unim- 
peded. 

The requirements of nature are of com'se the same when trees are 
growing together in a forest as when they stand singly, but the con- 



.19 

ditions of growth are so changed that the end is attained hy entirely 
different means. 

If we enter a tract of woodland, covered with a hard wood growth 
of an average height of thirt}- or forty feet, we find it composed almost 
exclusively of trees which have run up to a great height in propor- 
tion to the spread of their limbs. The largest and oldest of them 
ma}- have had some lateral branches which are now dead, but the 
younger growth will consist only of tall, slender stems, without a 
branch or leaf except near the top. It will be difficult, perhaps im- 
possible, to find a single tree possessing sufficient symmetry of form 
to be worth transplanting for ornamental use. A little reflection will 
serve to convince us that this form of growth, so different from that 
of the single tree in the open ground, is the natural result of the ac- 
tion of the same rules under changed conditions. 

When a young wood first springs up on open ground, each tree be- 
gins to grow as if it were alone, sending out lateral branches, and 
preserving its just proportion. But whenever these laterals meet and 
mingle with each other they shut out the sunlight from all below, and 
thenceforward all lateral growth must cease, and each individual is 
struggling upward to keep even with its neighbors, and secure its 
share of the sunbeams which are essential to its existence, and which 
can onh^ be had at the top. It thus becomes forced out of all just 
proportions in the effort to keep even with its fellows. The condi- 
tions of keeping the trunk and roots in the shade, however, are even 
more rigidl}' adhered to than in the case of the single tree, growing 
by itself, for the whole area of the wood is shaded, and, moreover, 
the trees on the edges of the wood, if not interfered with by men or 
cattle, will be clothed on the outer side with limbs and foliage clear 
to the ground, so as to check the free passage of the winds whose 
drying influence upon the soil is even more active than that of the 
sun. 

If we examine more closely we shall find that nature adapts herself 
to these changed conditions, and avails herself of whatever advan- 
tages they afford. 

The single tree when growing by itself sends its roots deep into the 
ground in search of the moisture which cannot be had near the sur- 
face, and thus, when it reaches mature age, it draws its supplies from 
sources be3'ond the reach of temporary changes, and, moreover, se- 
cures so firm a hold upon the ground that it suffers no injur}' from 
the storms that assail it, but fearlessly stretches forth its arms as if 
to challenge the gale. 

In the woods, on the contrary, the surface soil never becomes 
parched or heated, but maintains an even degree of temperature and 
moisture in consequence not only of the exclusion of the sun and 
winds, but of the deep mulching of leaves which annually cover the 
ground and keep it moist, while, b}' their decomposition, they form a 
rich mould comprising all the ingredients of vegetation. 

If we dig only a few, inches into this mould we find it everywhere 
permeated by fibrous rootlets emanating from larger roots, which, 
uuder these circumstances, have kept near the surface, where they 
draw nourishment from the rich material there provided. If the sin- 



20 

gle tree in the open ground had tried to live by such means, it would 
speedil}^ have perished for v^ant of nourishment, or would have been 
uprooted by the winds as forest trees are liable to be when left alone 
in a clearing. 

In the woods the necessity no longer exists of sending the roots to 
a great depth either in search of nourishment or for support against 
storms, and nature always adapts herself to circumstances and attains 
her ends b}' the simplest and most economical means. 

If we now consider the facts I have stated, which any one can eas- 
ity verify for himself, we shall find that all the essential principles of 
tree culture are comprised within their limits, and b}^ their rational 
observances we may secure healthy and vigorous trees, and develop 
at will such forms as will fit them either for timber or for ornamental 
use. 

The four trees I have cited — maple, linden, oak and ash — are among 
the most common and yet the most valuable of our forest trees, and 
may be taken as representatives and proper illustrations of the facts 
I am stating. Either of these trees, if growing b}^ itself in proper 
soil and undisturbed by other than natural influences, will attain at 
maturity a height of seventy or eighty feet, with a spread of limb 
equal in diameter to its height, and a trunk of such massive propor- 
tions as leaves no room for apprehension of inability to uphold the 
wilderness of foliage it has to support. But this same tree, if 
growing in a wood, will send up a slender stem, straight as an arrow, 
fifty, sixty or seventy feet without a limb or a leaf, till it reaches the 
average height of its fellows, and sends out its tufts of foliage to se- 
cure the benefit of every sunbeam it can catch. 

We see, therefore, that if we wish to form a beautiful and symmet- 
rical tree, or a grove of such, composed of individual specimens of 
majestic and graceful proportions, we must allow it free access to 
sun and air, with full i^ower of expansion on every side. While 
3^oung, however, the growth will be more vigorous and healthy, and 
we can develop the desired forms more easily and successfully by 
leaving a much greater number of trees than are eventually to remain, 
and removing from year to 3'ear all which are near enough to the final 
occupants to check or impede their full development. 

If, on the other hand, we wish to develop the trunk for use as tim- 
ber we must plant, or allow the trees to grow more thickly together, 
and thus extend their trunks longitudinally by forcing them to ascend 
in search of the sunlight on which their very existence is dependent. 
The indigenous growth, however, is alwaj's a great deal too thick for 
successful development. The trees are so crowded that many of them 
perish in the struggle, and those which survive are drawn up into 
such spindling proportions that not one in a hundred ever attains the 
dignity of timber, whereas by proper and reasonable thinning, and 
judicious culture and pruning of the trees selected for final retention, 
every acre of woodland may be made to yield an annual crop of 
fire-wood, and all the while be growing timber which eventually in 
many instances ma}- be worth more than the land itself; or by a 
different process of management ma}^ be converted into a grove of 
majestic and graceful, ornamental trees. 



21 

The proper performance of this work constitutes the most impor- 
tant part of forest culture, and for want of the knowledge of how it 
should be done, or from ignorance of the possibility of its application 
to our native forest, a vast area (in the aggregate) of woodland is 
running to waste, yielding no revenue and promising nothing better 
in the future than fire-wood, and yet a very large proportion is 
susceptible of redemption and conversion into timber of great value 
at far less cost of time and labor than would be required for the 
planting and rearing of new forests, while the very development 
will be yielduig an annual income instead of demanding a large 
outlay. 

Travel where we ma}' we are never out of sight of forest, and every 
wood lot is a mine of wealth waiting only the application of intelli- 
gent labor for its development. In almost ever}- tract of woodland 
may be found more or less of the trees I have named, and in many 
places also butternut, elm, cherry, beech, and other valuable timber 
trees, mingled with a great variety of those which are worthless or fit 
only for fuel. In some cases they are past redemption, having been 
so long neglected that they have run up into mere thickets of hoop- 
poles. Young growth may everywhere be found, however, which is 
in condition to be taken in hand, and in almost all cases the work of 
thinning and pruning may be entered upon with a certainty of profit- 
able results if wisely and perseveringly conducted. 

The work of thinning, as ordinarily conducted in the occasional 
instances in which, on any account, it has become desirable, is usually 
entrusted to mere laborers, who have no regard for the natural con- 
ditions which are essential to healthy growth, and which cannot be 
suddenly changed without serious injury to the trees that are left. 

All the small growth of shrubs, such as hazel, dogwood, elder, 
shad-bush, etc., is first grubbed out and destroyed under the general 
term of " underbrush," and this is done not only throughout the interior 
of the wood, but around its outer edges where such shrubbery is apt to 
spring up in thickets which serve the very important purpose of pre- 
venting the free passage of the wind over the surface soil of the in- 
terior, besides adding incalculably to the beauty of the wood, as seen 
from without, by connecting the line of foliage of the trees with that 
of the sward below, and thus presenting a living mass of verdure. The 
trees which are considered most desirable to preserve are then select- 
ed, and all the rest at once removed. Finally the leaves are carefully 
raked from the surface and carried off or burnt. 

Sun and wind now have free access to the soil, and it very soon 
becomes parched and dry. The fine rootlets near the surface, which 
have heretofore been preserved by the never-failing moisture of the 
rich mould under its mulching of leaves, are converted into a mass of 
wiry fibres, no longer capable of conveying nourishment, even if it 
were within their reach. And while the means of supply are thus 
reduced, the tall, slender trunk, through which the sap must ascend 
to the leaves, is now exposed to the free action of the sun and winds. 
Now I do not presume to say that evaporation can take place through 
the bark, but the provisions which nature makes to guard the inner 
vital tissues from the effect of the sun's rays indicate beyond allques- 



22 

tion that they are in some way injurious. I have elsewhere shown 
that in the case of the single tree growing by itself the trunk is always 
shaded by the spreading foliage, when suffered to retain its natural 
form. In the forest the trees shade each other, and thus effect the 
object bj' mutual action. But now let me call your attention to an- 
other provision of nature which few people observe, but the meaning 
of which is too obvious to be mistaken. If we examine the bark of 
an oak, elm, chestnut or maple, of mature age, which has alwaj^s 
stood by itself, exposed to the full influence of atmospheric changes, 
we find it to be of great thickness, of ver}' rugged character, and of a 
cork-like consistency, all of which characteristics make it the best 
possible non-conductor of heat or cold that can be imagined, under 
the protection of which the living tissues are safely kept from injury 
through the burning heat of summer and the intense cold of winter. 

Now go into the forest where the trees shade each other, and wind 
and sun are excluded, and you will find that the bark of the trees is 
smooth and thin in comparison with that of those in the open ground. 

Nature never wastes her energies needlessly, and the trees in the 
woods do not require the thick coat of those Ihat are exposed. But 
the effect of suddenly admitting the sun and wind upon them is pre- 
cisely the same as that of exfosing any portion of the human skin 
which had heretofore been clothed. It is to guard against injury from 
this source that experienced tree-planters, when removing large trees 
from the woods, are accustomed to swathe the trunks with ropes of 
straw, which is a rational process, yet it is by no means uncommon 
to see the reverse of this action. Sometimes trees may be seen from 
the trunks and large limbs of which all the rough bark has been care- 
full^' scraped, leaving only a thin, smooth covering over the inner 
tissues. This is as if a man should prepare for unusual exposure to 
heat or cold by laying aside all his clothing. 

Few persons, even among those whose business is tree culture, as 
fruit growers and nurserymen, have any just conception of the value 
of thorough mulching as a means of promoting the health and vigor 
of growing trees. In fact, such a mulching of the whole ground as 
nature provides in the forest by the annual fall of the leaves may be 
said to be unknown in artificial culture, so rarely is it practiced, ^'et 
its immediate effect in promoting new and vigorous growth is such as 
would seem almost incredible to one who had not witnessed it, and 
affjords one of the most beautiful illustrations of nature's methods of 
securing the most important results by such simple means that 
they escape our notice, though going on right under our e^^es 
from 3'ear to year. 

Of course the richest food for plant consumption is in the soil near 
the surface, but if that soil is subjected to alternations of temperature 
and moisture, sometimes baked in clods, and at others reduced to the 
consistency of mire, no roots can survive the changes. In the forest, 
as I have elsewhere said, these changes are prevented by the shade 
of the foliage and the mulching of fallen leaves. The rich mould of 
the surface soil maintains an even temperature, is always moist, and 
is everywhere permeated with fibrous roots drawing nourishment from 
the rich sources which surround them, and this process may be arti- 



23 

ficially imitated, and the same results attained, by mulching, if prop- 
erly' done. It does not suffice to pile a few inches of straw or manure 
around each tree for a short distance from the trunk. If the tree 
stands singl}', at a distance from others, the mulching should extend 
on every side beyond the spread of its branches ; and in the case of 
an orchard, or young wood, the surface of the whole area it occupies 
should be covered with leaves, straw, shavings, chip-dirt, tan-bark, or 
whatever material is most available, to a depth of several inches. 

No fruit grower who has once tried this experiment will ever after 
forego the advantages it offers, and I have spoken of it thus at length 
from the obviously vital importance of its bearing on forest culture. 
A moment's reflection will show that in the opening and thinning of 
native wood which had grown thickly together, a heavy mulching of 
such portions of the ground as may unavoidably become exposed 
may be of most essential service in preserving the health and vigor 
of the trees that are to be retained. 

It is difficult to lay down specific rules by which a novice can be 
guided in the work of opening and thinning out the wood of a native 
forest,^ other than by full}' impressing him with the importance of pre- 
serving, so far as is possible, the conditions which nature shows to be 
the most favorable to vigorous growth, and proceeding very cautious- 
ly when it becomes necessar}^ to change the relative proportions of 
the influences which afl:ect the vitality of the trees. The age and con- 
dition of the wood at the time the work is begun are, of course, im- 
portant elements for consideration. If the growth is not more than 
ten or fifteen years, and the trees have not sprung up so thickly as 
already to have become a mere thicket of hoop poles, but have pre- 
served a reasonable degree of symmetry, its management can be 
much more easily controlled than if it has attained a more mature 
age, and especially if the object is to create an ornamental grove 
composed of fine specimens of individual trees, a process by which 
the value of desirable residence sites in the vicinity of cities or large 
towns may often be very greatly increased. 

Whether this be the object or the development of timber, the first 
thing to be done is to select and place a distinguishing mark upon 
every tree which is ultimately' to be retained. Then remove at first 
from its immediate vicinity only those which are actually crowding 
it, or impeding its growth by shading or interfering with its foliage. 
Those which simply shade the trunk or the ground around it are 
serving a useful purpose and should not be disturbed. Indeed, if it 
is found that the necessary removals involve much increased exposure 
of the surface soil around the tree, the soil should at once be covered 
with a mulching of sufficient depth to prevent the possibility of its be- 
coming heated and dry. All other sources of danger to the health 
of the trees are insignificant in comparison with that of the rude 
check they are liable to receive from sudden exposure of the trunks 
and surface roots to the influence of the sun and wind, from which 
they have heretofore been protected, and to which the}' can onl}' be- 
come accustomed by a gradual change. 

The next year it will be found that the tree has gladly availed it- 
self of the opportunity for expansion, and has spread its limbs to 



24 

fill the vjicant space around it, so that more trees must now be re- 
moved, while the increased mass of foliage it has developed renders 
it less liable to suffer injury from their loss. 

The removal of the undergrowth of shrubbery should be very cau- 
tiousl}^ conducted, and in no case should it be removed from the out- 
skirts of the wood, which should everywhere be left with as dense a 
growth as possible, to prevent the entrance of the winds. 

The sirocco-like wind from the Soutli-west, which often blows with 
great violence for days together, especially in the spring and early 
summer, when the trees are full of sap, and the young shoots and 
leaves are tender and sensitive, is the one from which most danger is 
to be apprehended. The merely mechanical injury it inflicts upon the 
spra}' and foliage is often serious, but its worst effects are due to its 
absorption of moisture and vitality. 

The work of pruning the trees which are to be preserved for timber 
involves a careful consideration of the principles I have set forth, 
apart from the judgment required for the skilful performance of the 
mere manual labor. The object in view being the development of 
the trunk, it is important to remove any limbs which threaten to be- 
come its rivals in size, if any such have become established before the 
work of improvement began. But after the trunk has attained the 
desired height, it is on all accounts desirable to develop the largest 
possible mass ot foliage, because the making of wood can only be ef- 
fected b}' the elaboration of the sap, which is the work of the leaves. 

If one is rearing a new forest, in which the trees have been under 
his control from the time of planting, it must be the result of his 
own ignorance or negligence if he has failed to secure such forms as 
he desired, since it is easy to direct the growth of 3'oung trees, and 
prevent them from running into extravagances which will unfit them 
for service as timber. And not unfrequently we may find a young 
wood of indigenous growth, which may be taken in hand and wrought 
into such shape that its future progress can be easily directed. But, 
for the most part, in woods that have been suffered to run wild till 
they have approached maturity, a good deal of skilful pruning will 
be required to bring the individual trees that are to be preserved into 
such form as will give them most value. Nothing but practice and 
careful observation can confer this power. The little treatise of 
DesCars on the pruning of forest and ornamental trees, translated by 
Mr. C. S. Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum, and published by A. 
Williams «fe Co. of Boston, (price 75 cents) contains full and explicit 
illustrated directions for all the manual work of pruning, and is in- 
valuable as a guide to the novice, and a work of reference to experi- 
enced foresters. But mere manual skill in the performance of the 
work will be of little avail without the application of a thorough 
knowledge of the principles of tree growth, and a strict compliance 
with the requirements of their nature. 

If our agriculturists will but apply to the management of their for- 
ests the same intelligence with which they direct the culture of other 
farm crops, they will find an eqfually ready response to their efforts. 
The farmer who should leave his field of corn or potatoes to shift for 
itself, or suffer his cattle and hogs to ramble through it at will, would 



25 

be justly sneered at by his neighbors and punished by the loss of his 
crop, and trees have no more capacity for self-management than 
corn or other vegetables, and are quite as ready to profit by judicious 
culture, and to yield returns corresponding to the care bestowed upon 
them. They are not liable to be utterly destroyed as corn is by the 
incursions of live stock, but they do suffer serious injury from the 
trampling and rooting up of the ground. 

If every owner of a wood lot could be convinced that its value 
might be enormously increased b}' a process which, so far from de- 
manding an outlay, would add to his annual income, it would not be 
long before farmers would consider it as derogatory to their reputa- 
tion to leave the forests in the wild condition thej- now are as the}' 
would to have a field of corn presenting a similar appearance of 
slovenliness. To produce such conviction the truth must be demon- 
strated in actual practice, and the cost of such demonstration will be 
but a trifling price to pay for the returns it will bring. The process 
would soon begin to be imitated, a conviction of the value and impor- 
tance of a knowledge of forestry would become established in the 
popular mind, and the demand for the services of those who had ac- 
quired it would lead to a demand for the means of acquirement, and 
thus the schools of forestry would be called into existence by the nat- 
ural course of events. 

DEMANDS AND PRICE OF TIMBER. 

The demand as well as its price is constantly increasing. The 
large and rapidly increasing demands made upon our forests in the 
supply of railroad ties alone are impressively shown by Prof. Egleston 
in his report on forestry issued last year, to which 1 am indebted for 
the facts following : There are now in use in this country about 150,000 
miles of railroads, which have required 396,000,000 ties, or the wood 
supplied by 3,390,000 acres, an area larger than that of the States of 
Rhode Island and Connecticut. Estimating that ties need to be re- 
newed on an average once in seven years, there must be drawn from 
the forest annually 56,571,428 ties, requiring the timber on 565,714 
acres. Allowing thirty years as the time necessar}' to produce trees 
of proper dimensions for ties, it will require 16,971,420 acres of wood 
land to be kept constantly growing as a kind of railroad reserve in 
order to supply the annual needs of the existing roads. This con- 
stitutes an area larger than the States of New Hampshire, Vermont, 
and Massachusetts combined, or the States of New Jerse}', Maryland, 
and Deleware, with the addition of Connecticut. It is more than 
four per cent of the total area of wood land in the United States, ex- 
clusive of the Territories, and three per cent of the area in the States 
and territories together. With the rapid extension of our railroad 
systems, these figures will be proportionately increased. From these 
facts it would seem that the subject of forestry should receive the 
most favorable consideration from railroad corporations. 

FOREST ECONOMY NECESSARY. 

Statisticians have furnished us with alarming facts relating to the 
consumption of forestry products in this countr}' and the consequent 



26 

rapid decrease of our forest area. These facts have been widely pub- 
lished through official reports and commented upon by the public 
press. Yet so important are they as the basis for urging upon the 
people and the National and State governments the necessity for 
adopting and enforcing measures looking to the prevention of timber 
waste and preservation of necessary forest areas that I venture to re- 
peat some of them here. 

Prof. Egleston, Chief of the Forestry Bureau, at "Washington, from 
the mass of statistics gathered on the subject, estimates the total 
value of all the annual products of our forests at not less than $800, 
000,000, outmeasuring the value of our great cereal crop, that 
of corn ; about double our wheat crop ; more than that of our 
crops of hay, rye, oats, barlej', buckwheat, potatoes, and to- 
bacco taken together, and ten times that of all our mines of 
gold and silver. Prof. Sargent made the estimate for 1880 of more 
than $700,000,000. 

The capital .nvested in the United States in lumber business-i. e., 
in the business of manufacturing lumber, in 1880, was, according ^o 
the census return, $181,186,122. The total value of our lumber pro- 
duct for that year is given at $233,367,729, while the estimated value 
of the cord-wood used for domestic purposes was $321,962,373. 

The New England States had invested at the same time in the lum- 
bering business $16,641,326, and produced a lumber product valued 
at $19,271,914 ; and the value of the cord-wood used for domestic 
purposes that year amounted to $16,242,801. 

In Vermont there are over 100 steam mills, which have sawed and 
manufactured from 1,000,000 to 18,000,000 feet of dimension stock 
from the log during the season of 1885. The aggregate production 
of lumber, timber, chair stock, etc., is estimated by measure to ag- 
gregate 232,000,000 feet the past 3'ear. This amount was all pro- 
duced from whole sale establishments for shipment to dealers and 
markets outside the state. These figures also represent nearly the 
amount transported b}' the railroads to points outside the state dur- 
ing the year. 

In addition to the large steam mills mentioned there are some 600 
smaller steam and water mills in the state for sawing, dressing and 
manufacturing, lumber of various kinds. The average annual produc- 
tion of these smaller mills, is from a few thousand to one million feet. 
A part of their production is shipped to other states, but the greater 
portion of the lumber is used % local builders or sold to manufac- 
turers in the state. 

In regard to the material and stock produced by the large mills for 
exportation by rail, probabl}' 80 per cent was spruce, and the balance 
hemlock, pine and hard wood. The manufactured value of this 
232,000,000 feet of lumber and dimension stock is estimated b}' e?:- 
perienced lumbermen to average at least $15 per thousand, which 
gives an aggregate amount of $3,480,000 as the sum realized b}' Ver- 
monters in this branch of industry. 

The lumber of all kinds manufactured along the line of the vari- 
ous roads and shipped b}* rail to markets outside the state in 1885 
should be apportioned about as follows : 



27 

Feet. 

St. Johnsbury and Lake Champlaiu 80,000,000 

Passumpsic ami South-eastern (road in Vermont) 60,000,000 

Central Vermont and branches 40,000,000 

MoutpeUer and Wells River 10,000,000 

Bennington and Rutland 10,000,000 

Other roads 5,000,000 

205,000,000 
This amount is all of Vermont " stumpage," and does not include 
logs or lumber cut from Canadian soil and sent over Vermont roads. 
In addition to this it is estimated that nearly- 30,000,000 feet of lum- 
ber is manufactured in Essex county and shipped over the Boston, 
Concord & Montreal and Grand Trunk roads to market. To trans- 
port this vast product of Vermont forests required over 20,000 ears, 
or 1,000 trains of 20 cars each. Also about 50,000,000 feet in log 
by Connecticut river. 

The average number of men engaged in logging on a large scale in 
the state during the " season " exceeds 3,000. There are at least 
4,000 men engaged in lumber manufacturing in the larger mills of 
the state, and probably 3,000 more that work in small saw-mills dur- 
ing the busy season of the year. It is probable that the lumber in- 
dustry gives employment to 10,000 hands in Vermont for a portion 
of the year. 

LOGGING IN ESSEX COUNTY. 

The heai't of the lumber region of the state is in Essex county. It 
is estimated that there is nearly 200,000 acres of timber land in this 
county, most of which is virgin forest. This forest primeval has an 
average width of twelve miles and is some thirty miles long, and old 
lumbermen say that it contains no less than 875.000,000 feet of 
spruce and hemlock lumber. It is expected that 80,000,000 feet of 
logs will be cut from the stump during the season of 1886-87. At 
this rate it will take but ten years to exhaust the supplj- of timber 
in this region. This vast forest is a mine of wealth to the owners, 
chief among whom are the Beattie Brothers, who own about 50,000 
acres of woodland in Essex count}'. Messrs. A. M., D. H. and T. G. 
Beattie are entitled to be called the lumber kings of Vermont. Thej' 
intend to cut over 20,000,000 feet of logs next season in Essex county 
alone. Is it not time for Vermont to awaken in regard to the future? 

When the forestry bulletins, issued by Prof C. S. Sargent from 
the Census Department, announced that in both the upper and lower 
peninsulas of Michigan there remained of standing white pine tim- 
ber, suitable for market, but 35,000,000,000 feet, board measure, and 
that in the census year of 1880 there had been cut in the State 4,396, 
211,000 feet, requiring only eight years at this rate to exhaust the 
suppl}' ; that in Wisconsin there were standing 41,000,000,000 feet, 
with a cut of about three billions (2,097,299,000) feet for that year, 
leaving a supply that would last but fourteen years ; that in Minnesota 
there were remaining 8,170,000,000 feet, and that 541,000,000 (540, 
997,000) were cut in the census year, leaving a supply for fifteen 
years, that at this rate the supply of white pine lumber would be ex- 
hausted in these three States in the brief period of about twelve years. 



28 

the question of the future supply of this most valuable timber be- 
came serious to the business world. 

The late James Little, of Montreal, in 1882, said of the supply of 
white pine in Canada that he had consulted with the best authorities, 
and was pursuaded that, at the rate of cutting then going on, the 
whole supply of the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, 
and Nova Scotia would be used up in about ten 3"ears. According to 
these estimates, then, the suppl}' of white pine will soon be exhausted, 
and the mechanic arts will have to look to other fields for their supply 
of wood and timber. In view of this vast industrial interest the pro- 
tection and conservation of our forests demand the earnest attention 
of our people and of the National and State Governments. 

RAISING TREES FROM SEED. 

As I believe I have shown that forestry is profitable of course 
those that may wish to engage in it will require some directions 
about raising their trees from seed, and I believe I can do no better 
than make copious extracts from the directions given by Jackson 
Dawson, before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, in 1885. 
He says : "It is an old subject, one that has been spoken and written 
upon from time immemorial to the present day. But we are a new 
generation and notwithstanding all that has been said upon the sub- 
ject there are many who hardly know an3'thing about the life of a 
tree, or how long it takes its seed to germinate. Yet there is no rea- 
son why every man who has a few acres of barren land should not 
plant a few acres of trees every 3'ear, using the kinds most suitable 
to the soil of his farm, thereby not only securing a permanent invest- 
ment for his children but at the same time adding to the resources 
of his country. 

"The raising of trees from seed is the natural way of propagating 
them. Nature shows us that, and emploj's many agents to carry out 
her designs. In the first place, seeds drop from the trees to the 
ground and are covered b}- the falling leaves, or by the grass and 
weeds, which keep them from the drying winds until they germinate. 
They are scattered by the winds, and many fall in the crevices of 
rocks, and on good ground, or other favorable situations ; they are 
floated do\vi rivers and brooks and are left in the rich mud along the 
banks. They are carried many miles from their original station by 
the birds ; and the larger seeds, such as acorns ^nd nuts, are cai*ried 
awa}^ by squirrels, mice, and other animals, and buried for future use 
as food, and a great many of these germinate. I think that for many 
rows of fine oaks and hickories along the boundary walls of old farms 
we are indebted to the planting of the squirrels. While we can learn 
much from nature, we can also improve upon her methods, and sup- 
ply ourselves with trees in an economical wa}'. It is true, if nature is 
left to herself, and men stop detro3ing, she will soon cover up the 
ruins made by man, for she sows with a liberal hand ; but there are 
so many condiflons to take in to consideration, that onl}' a small per- 
centage of the seed that drops to the ground germinates ; possibly 
not one in a thousand comes to maturity. For this reason we can- 
not afford to raise our forests as natui'e shows us. 



29 

"The sowing of tree seed where the trees are to remain is poor 
economy, and should not be undertaken except where it is impossible 
to plant ; such sowing should be the exception, not the rule. A much 
greater quantity of seed is required ; it necessitates more labor ; more 
spots have to be replanted, and it is not generalh^ satisfactory in its 
results. The soil and situation are so varied that the seed cannot be 
cared for, as it can be in the compact form of frames, seed beds, or 
nurser}^ rows, where they can be protected from insects or inclement 
weather. 

The first consideration in seed-sowing is to determine what you 
want to plant ; the second, to procure your seed as fresh as possible ; 
the third, to prepare a suitable soil and situation to plant them in ; 
the fourth, to know what depth to cover them and how long to wait 
for the seed to come up. 

For the first proposition I would refer you to the list of trees of 
Vermont published with this article. 

The second your own judgment under the following directions will 
aid you while the third and fourth I shall endeavor to show you in 
the following remarks. 

SOIL AND SITUATION. 

In selecting a place for the seed beds the soil for all large seeds 
should be deep, rich, mellow loam, avoiding if possible all thin 
gravelly soils, or heavy clays. The soil should be well manured with 
good rotten manure one year old, and plowed or trenched from twelve 
to fifteen inches deep, and well pulvirized with a harrow. All coarse 
stones, witch grass, or other rubbish, should be raked oft' so as to 
leave the land in the finest condition possible. If the land is full of 
weeds it would be well to manure heavily and plant one year with 
crops that would be well cultivated ; or to plough it frequently during 
one season, so that it maj- be as clean as possible when the time 
comes for sowing. If there is anything that tries one's patience, it 
is attempting to grow seedlings in a soil that is already full of weed 
seed. The land should be well sheltered from the north and west 
winds, either by a hedge or fence. If it is springy or low it should 
be well drained. If the seeds are to be sown in beds they should be 
laid out five feet wide, with an alley or pathway two and one half 
feet wide ; this will give ample room to work the beds from both sides. 
The beds should be raked fine, and if to be sown broadcast the}' will 
then be ready for the seed. A great many people prefer to sow 
broadcast ; but I think that method requires more labor and care in 
weeding. I prefer to sow in rows nine inches apart across the bed, — 
especially if there are a large number of varieties, or only a limited 
number of plants are wanted, — or in long nursery rows eighteen 
inches apart if to be worked b}' hand, or from two and and a half to 
three feet if to be cultivated by horse-power. The reason I prefer 
the short rows is that in beds so planted you can keep the soil well 
stirred between them, which 3^ou cannot well do when sown broadcast ; 
they are also easier to shade and water, if necessary, than the long 
nursery rows, and in the fall they are much more easily protected. 



30 



SOWING. 



The seeds should never be sown when the ground is wet, or when 
it is raining ; the soil at the time of sowing should be neither wet nor 
dry, but in such condition that it can be raked without clogging. If 
sown when wet the soil is apt to bake hard, and a great many 
seeds will scarcely come through, while, on the other hand, if the soil 
is too dry the seed is apt to work out unless covered deeper than is 
desira,ble. 

A supply of water should always be at hand ready to use during 
dry weather on all light-rooted plants ; but for large, deep-rooted 
plants this is unnecessary, except in protracted droughts. It is also 
well to have a number of light lath screens to shelter the most delicate 
plants from the hot sun. Having the ground well prepared, and all 
else necessary, we can begin sowing as soon as we can get the seed. 
If in the fall, we begin with the oaks, as acorns do not long retain 
their vitality, out of the ground. Neither does the seed of chestnut, 
butternut, hickory, or beech. To insure good success these must 
all be planted, or put in boxes of earth, as soon as possible. If sown 
-broadcast the nuts should be scattered thinly and evenly over the bed, 
pressed down with a light wooden roller, or the back of a spade, and 
covered a little more than the diameter of the seed, — which would be 
nearly an inch for beech, chestnut, and oak, and from one to two 
inches for hickory, black walnut, butternut, and horse chestnut. If 
the same seeds are sown in drills they should be from two to three 
inches deep, and from one to two inches apart in the row. If not 
pressed down they will need from half an inch to an inch more cover- 
ing than those pressed down. Some prefer to make shallow drills 
with a plough and sow the nuts very thickly ; this will give a great 
many more plants to a given space, but they will not be so strong. 

The Maples, with the exception of Acer rubrum and Acer dasy- 
carpum (these two species ripen their fruit in May and June), should 
be sown as soon as possible after gathering, and, whether in drills or 
broadcast, should not be covei:ed more than twice their diameter. If 
covered too deep they will sprout and rot, not having strength enough 
to break through a great depth of soil. If maple seed is allowed to 
get perfectly dry, and is kept so until spring, very few, if any, will 
come up until the second year ; while, if sown as soon as gathered 
and subjected to a good freezing, the greater portion will come up the 
following spring ; though a few may wait until the second 3'ear. 

The Ash (Fraxinus) must also be sown as soon after gathering as 
possible, if wanted to come up the first year. The Carpinus(Horn- 
beam)and the Ostrya (Hop-Hornbeam), unless sown in the autumn, 
will not come up until the second year. The Nyssa (Tupelo), Cornus 
florida, Amelanchier Canadensis (Shad-bush), Celtis occidentalism the 
viburnums and thorns, seldom come until the second 3'ear, although 
there are a few exceptions, as some varieties will come if exposed to 
freezing, while of others not a seed will germinate even if frozen. 
The plum, peach, apple, and pear never come up evenly the first year 
unless the seed has been frozen or kept in boxes of moist earth. A 
great many roses will not come up the first year, even after having been 
frozen, although the seed of hybrids will, if frozen for a week or two, 



31 

come up in less than a month. The Tulip Tree invariably takes two 
years, and, as the proportion of good seed is as one to ten, it should 
be sown very thickly to insure even an ordinary crop, I find a good 
plan, which saves much time and labor, is to to take some good;-sized 
boxes, and fill with seed and fine sand in alternate layers ; burying 
each box in a well-sheltered place and leaving it there one season, lift- 
ing out the sand in the spring and sowing the seed thickly in rows, 
and covering lightly. 

Such seeds as those of Cercis Canadensis, Oleditschia triacanthos, 
Cladrastis tinctoria, and Gymnodadus Canadensis, being very hard, 
should have boiling water poured over them, and then stand for 
twenty-four hours, when they may be passed through a sieve, the 
mesh of which corresponds to the size of the seeds to be operated 
upon. All those not passing through the sieve may be considered 
fit for sowing, while the rest should be treated to another hot bath 
until they have all swollen to the required size. If sown dry they 
will keep coming up a few at a time for a 3'ear or two. The Ailan- 
thus, Catalpa, Morus, Platanus, Birches, and Alders are best sown in 
spring, as soon as the ground is dr^' enough to work. The ground 
should be very fine, and, whether in beds, broadcast, or in drills, the 
seed should be ver}' lightly covered ; and if a slight screen or shade 
were used it would be of great benefit to the young seedling until 
they had made the second or third rough leaf, when the shade could 
graduall}' be dispensed with. 

The White and Scarlet Maple, the Elms, and Betula nigra ripen 
their seed in early summer, and should be sown in freshly prepared 
beds as soon as gathered. At this time of the year the weather is 
often quite warm and dry, therefore these summer sown seeds should 
be carefully attended to as regards watering, and possibly light shade 
should be given. Where a large amount is planted, and no screens 
are at hand, birch brush laid thinly over the bed is a great help. If 
well taken care of they will make plants from six to twelve inches 
high the same season. I would say, before going further, that my 
rule is always to cover seed sown out of doors in an}' ordinarv loamy 
earth a little more than their own diameter, and if very light and 
sandy nearly twice as deep, but if the soil is a clay, as lightly as 
possible ; and it makes no difference whether broadcast or in drills. 
I know there are a few trees whose seed will come up if covered quite 
deep, but they are exceptions, not the rule. 

Such seeds as those of Magnolia, Rose, Mountain Ash, Crataegus, 
Celastrus, Euonymus, and Viburnum, which are inclosed in a fleshy 
pericarp or pulp, where space is of account, and also for convenience 
of sowing, I macerate in water at seventy or eighty degrees for one 
or two weeks, when they may be washed out and sown before they 
are thoroughly dry. This often helps germination, and more in the 
magnolia than any other plant I know. If the magnolia is sown when 
gathered, there is an oil in the pulp that surrounds the seed, which, 
as soon as it begins to rot, seems to penetrate the seed and make it 
rancid. I have frequently noticed that of the seed of the magnolia 
that was not washed clean, few germinated ; the pulp, in rotting, so 
soured the soil that il became full of fungus, which damped off many 



32 

of the young plants, necessitating their removal to fresh soil to save 
them ; while of those washed and sown under the same circumstances 
all came up and grew well. Of course this may not occur in nature, 
where the seed is exposed to the air and weather, or eaten by the birds 
and voided : but I am speaking of artificial cultivation. When mag- 
nolia seed is to be sown out of doors in New England it is best, after 
washing it out, to put it in pots or boxes of sand, — that is, in alternate 
layers of sand and seed, — and place it in a frame or cellar, where it 
does not freeze, until the the time of sowing in May. This is a good 
way to keep seeds for which we may have no place prepared, or which 
may arrive in late fall or winter, when it is impossible to get them in- 
to the ground. Very often it is more convenient to put seeds away in 
this manner until spring, than to sow in the fall ; but it will not an- 
swer for seeds which need frost. 

When seeds are sown in the fall it is well, as soon as the ground is 
frozen, to cover the beds or rows with a light covering of hay, pine 
needles, or leaves ; which will keep the ground from heaving, and the 
heavy spring rains from washing iip the seeds. If closely looked af- 
ter, the covering may be left on until the seed shows signs of germ- 
ination, which, in the case of large nuts, will be in June, when it 
should be carefully removed ; this will also save a great amount of 
weeding. 

All seed beds and rows should be kept free from weeds and, except 
where sown broadcast, as soon as up the ground should be hoed or 
cultivated frequently ; this causes the young plants to push with 
greater vigor, and makes them better able to withstand drought. If 
the weather becomes very warm and dry the beds or rows of young 
seedlings should be well watered once or twice a week, — not by a 
slight sprinkling on the surface, but by a good thorough soaking, 
wetting the ground six or eight inches in depth. After the first of 
September the wettings may be discontinued, to allow the plants to 
ripen up their growth. 

At the approach of winter all young seedlings that were sown in 
drills will stand better if a plough is run between them throwing a 
furrow against the stems, so as to cover them several inches deep ; 
this keeps the young plants from heaving with the frost, and also keeps 
the water and ice fiom settling around the young stems, which often 
causes great injury. Those sown bi-oadcast should have a slight 
covering of hay or leaves, as soon as the ground is frozen, which is 
usually from the twenty-fifth of November to the first of December 
in this vicinity. 

SECOND year's TREATMENT. 

About the first or second week in April the covering should be re- 
moved, the 3'oung trees careful!}' taken up, and the tap roots cut well 
back ; the cuts should be clean and smooth, so they will quickly callous 
and send forth plenty of young fibers, which would take some time if 
the cuts were not smooth. If an}' of the tops are crooked they should 
be cut back to a good strong eye ; this will cause them to make a 
straight leader. When taking up the young trees, they should not 
be exposed to drying winds, or hot sun, even for a few minutes, but 



33 

as soon as taken up they should be tied in bundles, and the roots well 
sprinkled with water, and covered with a mat, or piece of old bagging, 
and kept moist until the}' are planted. There is no doubt that a 
great many failures in tree planting could be traced to the drying up 
of the roots before planting, and it has often been a wonder to '-'me 
how some trees grew at all, considering the treatment they received. 

THE NORSERA. 

Having a good piece of land well prepared, either b}^ trenching or 
ploughing, mark out rows three feet apart with a spade or plough ; if 
with a plough go twice in a furrow, which will usuallj' make the drills 
deep enough for trees one year old, and, if they are to remain only 
one year, one foot apart will do for the larger growing kinds, and six 
inches for the smaller ones ; if to remain a longer period a much 
greater distance will be required. 

In transplanting trees the roots should be well spread and the 
soil worked well in about them, and well firmed with the feet. Our 
seasons for planting are often so short that we have to plant in all 
kinds of weather, though it is best not to plant when the ground is 
wet if it can be avoided. The best time is when the soil is dry 
enough to crumble easily ; it can then be worked among the finest 
roots, even if there are a great many of them, by taking hold of the 
tree and giving it three or four good shakes as the soil is being 
spread aronnd the roots ; bnt it is hard work to get it among the 
roots when it is wet and pasty. After planting, weeds should never 
be allowed to get a foothold in the nursery, but it should be culti- 
vated at least once every two weeks, and all weeds cut out with a 
hoe between the plants. This will help the tree to withstand a long 
drought much better than it otherwise would, and at no great cost. 

At the end of the second year almost all deciduous trees, if for 
forest planting, will be as large as it is profitable to plant in large 
quantities. If wanted for ornamental purposes they will need to be 
transplanted at least every two or three years, and carefully pruned 
into proper shape until they have reached the desired size. If often 
transplanted they may be successfully removed when from fifteen to 
eighteen, or even twenty feet in height; though I believe that vigor- 
ous young trees, from one to three feet high, when set out where 
they are to remain, will make much finer specimens if soil, prepara- 
tion and care be equal. 

THE CONIFERS, 

Such as pine, spruce, larch, cedar and hemlock, require much 
more attention and care to grow from seed than any other 
class of trees, and many of the finest kinds it is impracticable 
to raise out of doors in our New England climate, though the com- 
mon ones with care and attention may be raised quite successfully. 
The ground for these seeds should be a light, rich loam, deep and 
well pulverized, or, if not rich, made so with a good dressing of 
well decomposed manure. The beds should be laid oif five feet 
wide, and the alleys three feet. Along both sides of the beds, at in- 
tervals of five or six feet, drive a row of small posts that will rise 



34 

six or eight inches above the surface of the beds. The beds should 
be a few inches higher than the paths, so that water will not stand 
on them. The situation should be as sheltered as possible both from 
the midday sun and drying winds; the north or east side of a hedge 
or fence is a favorable position. The beds being all prepared and 
raked very fine, as soon as the weather becomes settled — say from 
the 10th to the 20th of May — the seed may be sown thinly, in rows 
six inches apart, across the beds or broadcast, and slightly covered, 
certainly not more than twice their own diameter. The sowing in 
rows is most convenient in working them, both in the way of keep- 
ing the beds clean and stirring the soil among the young plants. If 
sown broadcast they should be lightly raked in and the bed rolled 
with a light wooden roller. I would here say that all seeds sown 
during warm, dry weather are much benefited by having the ground 
lightly rolled over them. The sowing being completed, place on the 
posts before mentioned lath screens made the width of the bed, with 
the laths not more than an inch apart. This will screen the plants 
from the sun and in part protect them from the birds, which often 
pick up the young seedlings that are just breaking ground. • If no 
laths are handy the seed beds can be covered with pine, hemlock or 
cedar branches, quite thickly at first ; but the beds must be watched 
carefully, and as soon as the young plants begin to appear the 
branches should be gradually removed, until only enough are left to 
slightly shade the young plants, and these should be raised some 
inches above the plants. It is a good plan where pine needles are 
plenty to cover the seed bed thinly between the rows with them ; 
this keeps down the weeds, saves much watering, and keeps the soil 
from washing or baking. If the ground is very dry at the time of 
sowing they will require a slight watering ; otherwise they will not 
need it. In my experience there are few seeds that require so little 
water as those of conifers during germination. 

The critical time with young conifers is the first three months of 
their existence, until they have made the crown bud; after that time 
there is very little danger, but until then extreme watchfulness is 
very necessary ; a great quantity of rain or a scorching sun will 
often prove fatal to thousands. Stirring the soil after heavy rains, 
and tilting the screens as soon as the sun is gone from them, or sift- 
ing dry soil amongst the beds of overwet seedlings, is of great ben- 
efit. Aiter the muggy weather of August is past they will require 
very little care the rest of the year. At the approach of cold weather 
they are best protected by a slight covering between the rows, and 
a few pine branches or a little meadow hay spread over the tops of 
the young plants will keep them in good condition until spring. 

The pines, such as the Scotch, Austrian and Red, should not stand 
more than one year in the seed bed without transplanting, unless 
sown very thinly. The White, Black and Norway spruces will 
hardly be fit to transplant until the end of the second season. The 
larch makes better plants if transplanted at one year, but will stand 
two if thinly sown. The Silver fir, Balsam fir, hemlock, and others 
of that section may stand in the seed bed two years, while the Arbor 
Vitse should be transplanted after the first season. The seeds of the 



35 

Juniperus and Taxus, of all species, do not germinate until the sec- 
ond year, and it is well to treat tlieoi as I have recommended for all 
slow growing seeds. The Pimis Cernhra and other stone pines 
will lie in the ground until the second year, though a few may 
come up the first. 

The seeds of the conifers, with the exception of the silver firs, 
will, if kept in a cool, dry place, retain their germinating powers for 
a number of years, and even under adverse circumstances. A few 
years ago we had some branches of -Finns contorta sent us, which 
had the cones of six years upon them. Each cone was opened sep- 
arately and the seed carefully sown and labelled, and a portion of all 
but one grew, and that one was only two years old, while the oldest 
represented the seventh year. White, Scotch, Austrian and Pitch 
pine seeds came up fairly after being kept five years, and might pos- 
sibly have been several years old when received. I have found in 
my experience that too much moisture is fatal to the germination of 
old seeds, especially resinous or oily ones. If sown in soil that is 
barely moist, and covered with dry sphagnum so as to prevent the 
escape of the little moisture in the soil, many will grow ; while if 
treated in the ordinary way the seed will swell and then rot. 

A friend of mine, who does not like too mitch care, has a very sim- 
ple way of raising annually several thousand seedlings of the Norway 
spruce, and no doubt other evergreens might be grown under simi- 
lar conditions. At the back of his house he has a white pine grove, 
which is trimmed up ten or fifteen feet ; the soil is a light, sandy 
loam. In this he digs several beds, rakes them fine, and early in 
May sows the seed, rakes it in lightly, and sprinkles the bed lightly 
with pine needles. If the weather is very dry he gives the bed one 
or two waterings ; if not dry he lets it in a great measure take care 
of itself. In these beds the seedlings remain two years, when he 
transplants them into nursery beds, where they soon make nice young 
plants. 

THE BOX SYSTEM. 

The remarks that I have made would apply to those who wish to 
raise trees in large quantities, and where the loss of a few hundreds 
in transplanting would be of no material account. To those who 
might wish to plant an acre or so every year and want no failures, I 
would recommend another system which requires less space and 
labor, though possibly more attention, but in the end any one could 
transplant the most difficult trees, such as oak, hickory or chestnut, 
with no loss. For want of a better name I have called it the " box 
system." No doubt it has often been used, but I have not heard of 
any one using it largely except myself. By this method every root 
is preserved, and not even a fiber is destroyed ; there are few if any 
large tap roots to cut off, and even if grown in the nursery after- 
wards they lift with finer roots than the seedlings grown in the or- 
dinary way ; and though they will not make so vigorous a growth 
the first year as they would in the open seed bed, at the end of the 
second year after transplanting they are ahead of those of the same 
age grown in the ordinary way, and with no failures. Nine years 



36 

ago we transplanted from the seed boxes to a hillside in sod ground 
with no preparation, except to turn over the sod with a spade where 
each tree was to go, some hundreds of oaks one year old, and today 
they are fine young trees, from six to nine feet high, well formed, 
and much more vigorous than those grown in the nursery, which 
have had a great amount of care and labor bestowed upon them. I 
believe that if many of our early planters had used this system in 
growing oaks, hickories, and other hard wood trees, they would not 
have had so many failures to complain of. 

In the first place procure a lot of common boxes, such as may be 
had at any grocery store ; any kind of boxes will do, though a uni- 
form size is best, as they occupy less space in a six-foot frame when 
packed away than boxes of various sizes would. I usually get those 
that have contained canned goods or soap, as they are nearly equal 
in size, and with two cuts of a splitting saw you have from each box 
three fiats from three to four inches deep, which is a good depth for 
any ordinary seed. With a half inch auger bore three or four holes 
in the bottom of each box for drainage. This will be sufficient for 
large-rooted plants, while the liner seeds will require to be well 
drained with broken pots, coarse siftings of peat, or any coarse ma- 
terial that will allow the moisture to pass off readily. As sooq as the 
seeds are ripe in the fall, get together a good pile of compost, made 
as follows : Two parts rotten sod, one part peat, and one of sand, 
and if the seeds to be sown are oak, hickory, beach, chestnut or 
walnut, add a portion of good rotten manure. For such seeds as I 
have mentioned fill your boxes two-thirds full of the compost, and 
press down firmly with a board or the hand. Sow the seeds evenly 
and press them down in the soil, covering them from half an inch 
to an inch in depth, according to their size. On one corner of each 
box smooth off a place with a plane or knife, rub over with white 
lead, and write the name of the seed and the date of sowing. This 
takes only a few minutes, and is of much value afterwards, especially 
where a great variety of seeds is sown. It is much better than 
labelling in the ordinary way, and there is no danger of the record 
being lost in moving the boxes from one position to another. The 
finest seeds — such as maples, elms, birches, alders, and others — 
should be covered, according to the size of the seeds, about their 
own diameter. After sowing, the seeds should have a good watering 
with a fine nose to settle the soil. The boxes can then be piled four 
or five feet deep in a pit, the sashes placed in it, and at the approach 
of cold weather they may be covered with meadow hay or leaves. 
This does not keep the boxes fi'om freezing, but when once frozen 
it keeps them so until spring. If no pit is available the boxes can 
be piled six or seven feet deep in a well sheltered sjaot, covering the 
upper boxes with a few boards, the whole to be covered with leaves 
or other litter. In the case of all the seeds I have mentioned as 
taking one or more years to germinate it is unnecessary to cover the 
boxes with litter; but it is well to cover with boards, so that mice 
or squirrels may not get at the seed ; and in many cases seed that 
has been so frozen will often come up the first season, which other- 
wise would not have come until the second. As soon as the weather 



37 

is settled, which is usually about the middle of April, choose a well 
sheltered spot, level, and hand}' to water. If the aspect can be an 
eastern or south-eastern one I like it better, as they get the early 
morning sun, but not the scorching sun at noonday. Place all the 
boxes containing the nuts, acorns, and other large seeds together in 
beds of three boxes wide. This will make all very compact, and much 
easier to care for than if the boxes containing seeds of the 
same class are scattered about. The only attention these will re- 
quire is to keep them well watered and free from weeds ; but for 
such seeds as maple, ash, elm, and others of like nature, it would 
be well to cover the boxes with lath screens until they have made 
the second or third rough leaf, when they might gradually be 
hardened off and finally exposed fully to air and light. If a few 
sashes could be spread to protect all delicate growing seeds it would 
be of great advantage, and as soon as well up they could be treated 
the same as the others. 

The use of lath screens %n seed beds saves a great amount of labor 
in watering, and if the plants are neglected for an hour or so the 
results are not so disastrous as when the young seedlings are fully 
exposed to the sun. Any boxes of seeds that do not come up before 
the last of June will hardly appear that year, but will require to be 
kept moist, the same as the growing plants. I usually place all such 
boxes together in a shady spot and cover them to the depth of an 
inch or more with sphagnum moss, and by giving them a good water- 
ing once or twice a week they are carried safely through the summer. 
At the approach of cold weather they are gathered together, piled 
live or six deep as before, and covered for the winter. AVhen spring 
comes on they will need to be treated as seed that has just been 
sown. Eor the finer seeds, such as azalea, rhododendron, kalmia, 
and others, a special treatment is required. 

In the fall of the first year the boxes of young trees may be gath- 
ered together and wintered in a deep pit or frame and slightly cov- 
ered with meadow hay. If no frame is available, three or four inches 
of pine needles or leaves may be placed over the boxes, and they 
may then be left until spring ; but on no account should the boxes 
be left without any protection, as the young seedlings will then suf- 
fer very much in so little depth of soil. 

All seedling trees can be transplanted when very young as easily 
as cabbages or tomatoes if taken as good care of, and many of them 
are benefited by the operation. We transplant thoiasands of them 
every year with but little loss. The best time is when they are mak- 
ing their first or second rough leaf. 

In the spring of the second year all the young seedlings should 
be transplanted from the seed boxes to the nurseiy beds, or the 
larger ones planted out; and for chestnuts, hickories and oaks, 
I believe it is best to plant them from the seed box to the field 
where they are to remain. If planted in nursery beds or rows, 
the treatment will be the same as I have spoken of under the 
head of treatment in nurseries. 

The boxes I have mentioned are usually from fourteen to sixteen 
inches square, and will hold from 100 to 125 oaks, hickories, chestnuts, 



38 

or beeches ; 1 75 to 200 ashes or maples ; 250 birches or elms ; and so 
on according to the growth of the plants. Where a greenhouse can 
be used for this purpose, with frames to harden off the young seedlings, 
much better results can be obtained, and man}* of the finer seeds can 
be grown, which it is next to impossible to grow in large quantities 
out of doors. 

In conclusion I would sa}' that, while I have not mentioned evevy 
tree by itself, the general principles are the same for all ; that as a 
rule the soil should be of the best description and sheltered ; that all 
seeds should be covered only a little, if any, deeper than the diameter 
of the seed ; that the}' should be kept clean from weeds, the watering 
well looked to, and the shading, in the case of the finer seeds, be 
carefully attended to. They should be protected the first season, and 
in the end will well repay all the care and attention that have been 
bestowed upon them ; and any one owning a few acres of land, who 
will plant a few boxes of chestnuts, black walnuts, beech, oak, hick- 
ory, or other hard wood trees, that are usually considered so difficult 
to transplant, after growing them one year in the boxes and trans- 
planting the following spring where they are to remain, will be aston- 
ished to see how much land can be covered in a few years with health}^ 
young growths of hard wood with very little trouble or expence. 
And in New England, as well as in other parts of our country, we 
have too man}' acres lying idle, which it would be more profitable to 
plant with trees than anything else. 

PLANTING TO STAND. 

Notwithstanding Dawsons' ideas I believe, to start forests of oak, 
hickory, walnut, and all other heavy seeded trees, it is best and 
cheapest to plant the seeds just where the trees are to grow. One 
method of planting acorns and nuts, in practice by the Tharandt 
Forest Academy, of Saxon}', is as follows : Take a stick sharpened 
at one end and shove it obliquely into the earth to the depth of two 
inches, not more (in hard or stony ground, the pick is used), put in 
the seed and press the soil above it down firmly with the foot. The 
seeds should be placed about three feet apart. 

In my experiments I find that in the maple the seed planted where 
it is to stand will outstrip in growth the transplanted maple, trans- 
planted at five years old in from ten to fifteen years, and that the 
result is more perfect trees. 

If not so propagated they must be set at one or two years of age. 
These little trees can be planted very rapidly with a hoe or spade. 
Dig a small hole a little deeper than the roots ; hold the plant verti- 
cally with the left hand, and with the right draw the soil carefully 
around the roots, and press it down with the hands and foot. If 
there are stones near by, place a few around the plant ; they will help 
keep the surface moist, and prevent the weeds and grass from growing. 

Nearly every one who lives in the country at some time plants trees, 
but how few know just how to do it properly ! 

At the outset it is necessary to bear in mind that the tree is a living 
body, and that the process of removal interferes with its functions, 
and when it is displaced from the ground, causing an arrest of the 



39 

circulation that is constantly going on between tlie tree and the soil, 
a severe shock is sustained. Every root-fiber destroyed lessens by 
so much the chances of success, and when a greater portion of these 
are gone, the tree is forced to depend on its own vitalit}' to suppl}- a 
new set of rootlets before growth can take place. 

In the beginning bear in mind that it is important not to injure the 
roots and to preserve as many as possible, particularly the small ones, 
for these are what must be depended on to start the growth in 
the new life. Where trees are dug up to be removed a short distance, 
preserve all the roots if possible. 

When the tree is out of the ground, exposure to the sun or drying- 
winds will cause evaporation, which is very detrimental to the tree, 
and is a common cause of failure, and one which is often overlooked. 
If, however, the ti'ee has become shriveled and dried, vitalit}' may 
often be restored by burying the whole tree for a few days in moist 
soil ; but it is far better not to have it get in condition to need any 
such remedy, which at best can not restore the tree to its original 
condition. 

In excavating holes for planting, it is not necessary to dig very 
deep, unless for a tree with a tap-root ; it may even be hurtful in a 
hard soil by affording a place to hold water under a tree to its injury. 
The roots of young trees grow near the surface, and the holes should 
be large enough to allow the roots to be extended their full length 
without cramping or bending. 

In case it is very dry at the time of planting, it is a good plan to 
puddle the soil around the roots, always covering with dry earth. In 
this way moisture will be retained for a long time. Avoid too deep 
planting. The roots must not be placed be^'ond the action of the 
air ; about the depth the}' were before removed, or a very little deep- 
er, When filling, press the earth from the first firmW, so as to leave 
no spaces, and have it compact about the roots. This latler point 
can not be too thoroughly attended to, and, of course, to do this well, 
the soil must be finely pulverized and no lumps be allowed in the fill- 
ing. It will be necessary to use the hand to place the soil in spaces 
where the spade cannot go. 

The best time of setting is when the soil has settled in the Spring 
and become warm, so that trees not being removed begin to start. 
Earlier than this is not so well, for the sooner the tree begins to grow 
after being set the more likely it is to do well. We believe the proper 
time is the Spring and that it is the best time for planting all kinds of 
trees, although earl}- Fall planting is often recommended. Evergreens 
often suceed well when planted in August ; still we would rather risk 
them in the Spring, just as the}' are ready to grow. When you would 
plant earl}' potatoes is a good time to plant trees. Evergreens are the 
most sensitive of any to drying while being removed, and if once allowed 
to become dry it is all day with them ; no amount of pains or trouble 
can restore the lost vitality. For this reason they can be removed 
but short distances unless very carefully packed. 

As more or less of the roots are removed or injured, it is necessary 
to prune the top when transplanted. This has generally been done 
by cutting all the branches back ; but a better way is to remove a por- 



40 

tion of the branches, leaving those strong ones that are in position to 
give the tree a well-shaped top. If all the branches are left, and the 
proportion between the tops and roots balanced by cutting all back, 
in after-growth some of these branches will require to be removed — 
an injury, perhaps to the tree. This certainly will appl3' to fruit-trees. 
vSometimes trees for ornament or shade require to be cut back to make 
a thicker top or one more symmetrical. Large trees are removed in 
winter with a large ball of earth attached to the root, and, though a 
heavy job, it is the only successful method of doing it. A trench can 
be dug at the proper distance around the tree, and filled with coarse 
litter previous to freezing, and also the holes to receive the trees 
may be dug, which will much facilitate the labor. , 

Small trees do better than large ones, and it is better to be to the 
trouble of taking care of them one or two years longer than to have 
them grow too long in the nursery row. Trees grown on good soil 
are better than from poor soil. They have more and better roots, and 
are in better condition to grow in their new location. Of course, it 
is not desirable that the soil where they have grown should be so rich 
as to produce such a growth that the wood will not properly ripen, 
but it should be one sufficient to make a strong, healthy tree. A tree 
in poor soil has weak, spindling, feeble branches, and, like a starved 
animal, take as long time to recover, even when placed in better soil 
with better feeding. 

After large trees are properly transplanted the}' should be staked, 
to prevent swaying around by the wind. When the groun:!! is soft 
the movement of the top creates a displacement of the roots before they 
have taken any hold of the soil, resulting in injury or death to the 
tree. Mulcliing must not be dipensed with. Its object is to keep 
the soil moist until the roots obtain a strong hold. This may be 
overdone. Mulch for shade only. A large mass of decaying matter 
is more hurtful than beneficial. We cannot avoid all risks in trans- 
planting ; but if these conditions, which we repeat, are followed, the 
risk will be verj' much lessened : Careful removal, protection from 
drying while out of the ground, setting in warm well-pulverized soil, 
hard tamping the soil about the roots, judicious pruning, staking, 
and mulching. 

All this requires care and labor ; but it will make the difference 
between a thrifty, profitable orchard and a sickly : nd unprofitable one, 
or a fine-formed, well-grown shade or ornamental tree and a stunted 
unhealthy specimen, which has no beauty or gives no pleasure. 

If the trees are large, cut the top well back. The elm will grow if 
cut back to a pole, yet it is not desirable to do so, but if left with a 
full top the chances are that the tree will die, wholly or partlaHy, leav- 
ing the living portion in unsatisfactory shape. A most common mis- 
take is that of leaving too much top. In case of the maple tree, 
however, the top should be lessened b}- thinning the branches, leaving 
the outline of the tree not much disturbed. This is necessary to se- 
cure the symmetrical, oval shape, which is the beauty of the maple. 
If great care be taken to secure all the roots, and as much earth as 
possible, a larger top than otherwise will be supported. If the tree 
stands upon a slope, take a spade and cut a narrow leading channel 



41 

in the turf, which will conduct more water to the roots of the tree, in 
case of a washing shower, than it would receive without this help. 

TRIMMING. 

In trimming any trees, it is very desirable that they should 
be so small, that no limbs need be cut larger than an ordinary lead 
pencil, and then, that they should be trimmed each and every year, 
that no limbs larger than one years' growth be taken oft'. The cut- 
ting of large limbs is the death blow to the tree. It may struggle on 
for man}' a 3'eai', but at length rot at the heart creeps in and the tree 
dies. If it grows to large size, the timber is injured by the rot at 
the heart. In fruit trees, the black heart, the result of wounds, 
can be detected in the smallest limbs, and the purchaser of young 
trees should never receive or pay for such, if they have a dark almost 
black heart, for they are imperfect and will usually die before five 
years. 

AGE OF A TREE. 

There has been much question about the number of grains, or rings 
of growth, showing correctly the age of the tree. In my experiments 
I find it marks the periods of growth, yet in Vermont, that generally 
coincides with the seasons, in natural forests, but not in cultivated 
trees or in cleared land. A dry midsummer may cause two rings. 
A hail-storm that denudes the trees of their foliage will cause two 
rings, if the trees leave out again ; and sometimes a considerable in- 
jury to a tree hy the loss of its bark on one side in midsummer 
will cause an additional ring in the effort to heal the wound. In sup- 
port of this I quote the following authorities : 

Ex-Governor Furnas, of Nebraska, stated that the concentric rings 
of trees are no criterion of their age. As a rule, Mr. Furnas 
said, the number of rings were in excess of the age of the tree, but 
he had found one specimen, the age of which was absolutely known, 
which bore less rings than the age of the tree. He had another spec- 
imen which contained two rings for every year's growth. 

Prof. Budd, of Iowa, invited attention to a specimen of white pop- 
lar, grown on the Iowa Agricultural College farm. It was a close 
grained timber, which does not warp or shrink, and he thought it would 
be a good substitute for the white pine. The specimen showed more 
than thirty rings, while its actual age was not more than fifteen years. 
Prof. Budd said that he had noticed that in dry seasons trees would 
produce two rings. 

Mr. Minier, of Illinois, said he had cut this spring two pine trees 
he knew to be thirty years of age, in which the rings corresponded 
with the age, and in his opinion if the gentlemen would look a little 
further the}' would find that the timber in which the rings did not 
agree with the age, was cultivated timber. Nature never produced 
a double flower. Cultivation did that. So, in his opinion, as to 
the double ring, cultivation did the business. 

Prof. C.E. Bessey, of Ames, Iowa, took the position that if two rings 
were produced in one season, there must have been two separate and 
distinct periods of growth that season. 



42 



TABLE 5. 

VALUE OF WOOD. 

Showing the Relative Specific Gravity and Approximate Full Value of the princi- 
pal Vernnont woods. Compiled from Prof. C. S. Sargent's Report on the 
Forest Trees of North America for the Tenth Census.* 



Scientific Name. 



Carya alba 

Carya tomentosa 

Carya porcina 

Coruus Florida 

Ostrya Virginica 

Amelanchier Canadensis 

Quercus bicolor 

Betula lenta 

Carya amara 

Quercus prinus 

Quercus alba 

Robiuia pseudacacia 

Celtis occidentalis 

Pruuus Americana 

Crataegus Crus-galli 

Kalmia latif olio 

Ulmus f ulva 

Acer saccharinum, var. nigrum.. . . 

Acer saccharinum 

Betula lenta 

Fraxinus Americana 

Quercus rubra 

Ulmus Americana 

Fraxinus sambucifolia 

Rhododendron maximum 

Fraxinus pubescens 

Larix Americana 

Acer rubrum 

Betula papriace 

Prunus serotina 

Betula alba var. populifolia. 

Acer dasycarpum 

Pinus rigida 

Sassafras officinale 

Juniperus Virginiana 

Populus grandidenta 

Pieea nigra 

Tilea Americana 

Castanea vulgaris, var. Americana. 

Tsuga Canadensis 

Populus balsamif era.var. candicans 

Picea alba 

Populus tremuloides 

P. monilit'era 

Pinus strobus 

Abies balsamea 

Populus balsamif era 

Thuja occidentalis 



Common Name. 



Shell-bark Hickory. . . 

Mockernut 

Pignut 

Flowering Dogwood. . 

Lever wood 

Shad-bush 

Swamp White Oak 

Black or Cherry.Birch 

Bitter-nut .' 

Swamp Chestnut Oak 

White Oak 

Locust 

Nettle tree 

Red Plum 

Cockspur Thorn 

Mountain Laurel 

Slippery Elm 

Black Maple 

Sugar Maple 

Black Birch 

White Ash . 

Red Oak 

White Elm 

Black Ash 

Great Laurel 

Red Ash 

Tamarack 

Red Maple 

Canoe Birch 

Wild Black Cherry... 

White Birch 

River Maple 

Pitch Pine 

Sassafras 

Red Cedar 

Large Poplar 

Black Spruce 

Bass-wood 

Chestnut 

Hemlock 

Balm of Gilead 

White Spruce 

American Aspen 

Cotton Wood 

White Pine 

Fir Balsam 

Balsam Poplar 

Arbor Vitae 



ceo 



.837^ 
.8219 
.8217 
.8153 
.8284 
.7838 
.7662 
.7617 
.7.552 
.7499 
.7470 
.7333 
.7287 
.7215 
.7194 
.7160 
.6956 
.6915 
.6912 
.6553 
.6543 
.6540 
.6506 
.6318 
.6303 
.6251 
.6236 
.6178 
.5955 
.5822 
.5760 
.5269 
.5151 
.5042 
.4926 
.4632 
.4584 
.4525 
.4504 
.4239 
.4161 
.4051 
.4032 
.3889 
.3854 
.3819 
.3635 
.3164 



* The specimens used for specific gravity were dried at 100° Centigrade until 
they ceased to lose weight. The specific gravity was then obtained by meas- 
urement with micrometer calipers and calculation of the weight of the blocks. 

The relative fuel values are obtained by deducting the percentage of ash 
from the specific gravity, and are based on the hypothesis that the real value 
of the conibustible material in all woods is the same. 



43 



TREES OF VERMONT. 



In consideration of the interest in Forestry and the many enquiries 
about different trees, I have thought best to append a list of the var- 
ious forest trees in Vermont, with some remarks upon them in relation to 
values, size and some of their uses. Theauthority followed is that of 
Prof. Gray, of Cambridge, and Sargent's Catalogue in the tenth census 
of the United States. When any of their common names are known 
they are given. It is not intended to make this list absolutely per- 
fect as to do so would require more time then is at m}' command but 
I trust it is sufficient to answer all general questions in reference to 
the trees of our state. 

Berber is vulgaris, L. 

Common Barberr}^ ; naturalized from Europe ; occasionally found 
within the oldest settled portions of the state. A shrub ten to fifteen 
feet high, with spiny branches. An excellent hedge plant. The bark 
and wood yield a yellow dye, and the handsome, acid, scarlet fruit is 
good for preserving. 

Does not produce well in northern part of state. Not very abundant. 

Zanthoxylum Americanum, Mill. 

Northern Prickly Ash. Rare. It has escaped from cultivation in 
a few places. A prickly low shrub. The whole plant pungent and 
aromatic. Of use in medicine. 

Might be of some profit to cultivate. 

Vitis labrusca, L. 

Northern Fox Grape. The species from which most of the culti- 
vated varieties are derived. Common to the alluvial soils and rocky 
hillsides of the lower Connecticut valley. The fruit of the wild vine 
is often of good quality. 

Vitis cestivalis, Michx. 

Summer Grape. Has the same range as the preceding, and is dis- 
tinguished from it by the leaves being slightly downy instead of 
white, woolly beneath, and the fruit about half the size, and usually 
less palatable. Varieties are sometimes found which are so much bet- 
ter as to show that it would soon improve if cultivated- In the 
South-western states this is the most common and best esteemed 
species. 

Vitis riparia, Michx. 

Frost Grape, Winter Grape. The most northern species, ranging 
as far as the foot of Fifteen-Mile falls on the Connecticut. Leaves 
heart-shaped, slightly three-parted, and smooth, except a few harirs 
along the veins of the underside. Fruit small, abundant, and of no 
value until after frost, when it may be useful in localities where better 
grapes are not to be had. All other species of grapes are good types 
of the Alleghenian flora, rarely being found native above six hundred 
feet from the sea. 



44 

Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Michx. 

Woodbine, Virginia Creeper. Well known in cultivation. A 
handsome, tall, climbing vine, tlie shining leaflets in fives, and turn- 
ing bright scarlet in autumn. Fruit the size of pease, bright blue. 
Common everywhere. E^scaped from cultivation. 

Rhamnus cathorticus, L. 

Common Buckthorn. A small tree, with hard, reddish or orange- 
colored wood, and small, nauseous, black berries. It is used for a 
hedge plant, for which purpose it was introduced from Europe, and 
it has become well naturalized in the south part of the state. 

Rhamnus alnifoUus, L'Her. 

A slender shrub, found in cold swamps. Rare. 

Oeanothus Americanus, L. 

New Jersey Tea, Libert}- Tea, Red Root. A shrub one or two feet 
high, forming rounded clumps. Flowers white. Dr}^ sterile soils ; 
near the Connecticut, at Bellows Falls. The leaves have sometimes 
been used as a substitute for tea. 

Celastrus scandens, L. 

Wax-work, Climbing Bitter-sweet. A twining shrub common near 
the Connecticut. The orange-colored pods open and display the 
scarlet fruit, and these remain all winter. Often cultivated for orna- 
ment, and reputed to be medicinal. 

Staphylea trifolia^ L. 

A handsome shrub, sixteen feet high. Leaves in threes, and the 
bark striated with green. Because of the inflated pods it is called 
Bladder-nut. Only rarel}' to be met with, chiefl}' in the lower Con- 
necticut valley. 

Tilia Americana, L. 

American Linden, or better known as Basswood. A large tree, to 
be met with in all parts of the state, to altitudes two thousand 
feet above the sea. In the southern part of the state it is found 
most abundantly near the streams, and when found on high lands, 
prefers a moist, fertile soil. It is common and best developed in 
the upper Connecticut valley, where specimens are often met with 
which are eighty to one hundred feet in height, with a diameter of 
from two to four feet. Bark very tough and strong, owing to its very 
coarse fibers, and can therefore be used for making coarse matting. 
Wood very soft, light, and elastic ; useful for lumber, a good material 
for carving, and remarkable for the facility with which it can be 
moulded into various curved forms, and therefore much in demand 
for carriage- Work. As bees derive an abundance of the best hone}- 
from its flowers, it is recommended by apiarians as a profitable invest- 
ment, to plant as a source of honey. It is of very rapid growth, and 
its abundant foliage makes it very desirable as a shade-tree. It mat- 
tures in from fifty to one hundred years, but becomes of suflJcient 



45 

size for timber in twenty or thirty. Wood of little value for fuel, 
but the ashes very rich in potash. 

Seeds in size and form resemble spice. They grow better if im- 
mediatel}' planted when ripe, but will grow after moderate drying. 
The tree can also be propagated by cuttings. If transported they 
must be put in wet sand as the least drying injures their germinative 
power. 

Rhus, Sumach. 

Mhus typhina^ L. Staghorn Sumach. The largest of the genus 
which grows in Vermont. A shrub ten to twent}' feet high, 
with wide-spreading branches, the tips of which are covered with vel- 
vet}' hairs, which causes them to resemble the young horns of deer. 
Common everywhere up to two thousand feet altitude. Flourishes 
best in moist, rocky situations, and sometimes attains a diameter of 
ten inches. The orange or yellowish-green colored wood is capable of 
taking a good polish, and useful for small cabinet and ornamental 
work. 

Rhus glabra, L. Smooth Sumach. Six to ten feet high, with 
smooth branches and leaves, and very large heads of fruit. Stem 
rarely more than two inches in diameter. This species is seldom seen 
on the highlands, but is common to the eastern part of the state and 
the lower Connecticut valley. 

Rhus copallina. Dwarf Sumach. Usually four to six feet high, 
with the shining leaves winged along the petioles. Ranges with R. 
glabra. The leaves of this and the two preceding species are gathered 
in Virginia for tanning purposes. Perhaps the same use might be 
made of our sumachs, unless our season is too short for the best de- 
velopment of the tanning principle. 

Rhus venenata, D. C. Poison Sumach. Often called Dog-wood, 
a name which properl^^ belongs to Cornus. Common in the swamps 
and moist places of the southei'n part of the state. A handsome 
species ten to twenty feet high, with dark green, shining leaves, and 
slender racemes of white fruit. Wood in color similar to that of the 
Staghorn Sumach. This species is extremely poisonous to the touch 
to the majority of people, causing painful swellings and watery blisters 
on the skin of the parts which come in contact with it, and some are 
so extremel}' sensitive to its effects as to be poisoned if they stand 
within a few feet of it when the air is hot and moist. Others, on the 
other hand, can handle it, and even chew leaves with impunit}", feel- 
ing no ill effects whatever. The milky juice is said to have properties 
similar to that of the lacquer tree of Japan, R. vernicifera. 

Rhus Toxicodendron, L. 
Poison Ivy, Poison Oak, A creeping and climbing shrub every- 
where well known and common. Fruit white and leaves in threes. 
Poisonous like the preceding, but in a less degree. The climbing va- 
riety, the R. radicans of some botanists, is not very common here, 
being sometimes seen clinging to the trunks of trees and rocks, and 
becoming ten or fifteen feet high, with a stem an inch or two in di- 
ameter, but in the Mississippi vallej' it reaches the tops of the tallest 
trees, with a stem four to six inches in diameter. 



46 

Acer saccharinum, Wang. 

Sugar or Rock Maple, the finest and most useful of the maple 
genus. In Vermont it is most abundant as a highland tree. It is 
a source of revenue because of its sugar and is the standard wood 
for fuel. It yields lumber which is very hard, heavy, susceptible of 
a fine polish, and is much used in chair-making and cabinet work, 
but is only moderately durable when exposed to the weather. Isolated 
specimens occur which have the peculiar grain known as " bird's-eye 
maple," so much prized as an ornamental wood. There is a variet}' 
known to the farmers as " black sugar maple," which differs some- 
what from the ordinary form in botanical characters. When at ma- 
turity in the forest the rock maple attains a height of seventy or eighty 
feet, with a diameter of from two to four, but in the open land it is 
many-branched, with a rounded, or oblong head, and a short, stout 
trunk. Foliage brilliant yellow and orange, in autumn. This maple 
is one of the most ornamental and popular of deciduous shade-trees, 
matures in about one hundred years, but grows rapidly enough to be 
valuable for fuel, timber, and shade in twenty or thirty. Although 
this tree is entitled to a place in the first rank in economic forestry, 
it is too much neglected, and there are few attempts to replace the 
old sugar orchards preserved by the first settlers. 

The seeds of this maple are readily collected and nearly all vegetate, 
so the planting is readily done. The seeds had better not be dried 
but immediately planted, and a very slight covering will suffice, yet I 
think about one inch deep gives the healthiest plants. They can 
easily be transplanted the second year, but a maple from seed has, 
in my experiments, reached the diameter of sixteen inches in fifteen 
years without transplanting. Constantly fertilizing with bone meal, 
land plaster and ashes, alternating, and sowing about 200 pounds to 
the acre, will very much facilitate the growth, and I find also increases 
the sweetness of the sap. 

Acer o-ubrum, L. 

Red or Scarlet Maple, but almost universally called " White 
Maple" by the farmers and lumbermen of Vermont. A good sized 
tree, universally distributed over the state, on moist soils, to two thou- 
sand feet altitude, and so plentiful as to be at once recognized as the 
most common of our maples. Wood far more durable than that of 
other maples, lasting a long time unless driven into the ground as 
posts or stakes. Not as hard as that of the preceding species, but 
takes a good polish, and is used for the same purposes. " Curled 
Maple," the variety with wavy grain, is derived from this species. 
It is of rapid growth, has a height of from forty to sixty feet, and, 
owing to the brilliant colors of the foliage in autumn and the red 
flowers in spring, is the most noticeable deciduous tree in our forests. 
Much of our sugar is made from it, and some maintain that it ex- 
ceeds the sugar maple in flow and sweetness of sap. In the experi- 
ments conducted by Prof. Wm. Frear. at my place, under the di- 
rection of the U. S. Commission of Agriculture, the sugar averaged 
4.48 per cent., while the sugar maple averaged 4.52, but it was more 



47 

unstable, reaching some days 9.88 and some days falling to 2.71 per 
cent. From this it may be seen why there is such a variety of opin- 
ions among farmers. Last spring I tapped 700 white maples and ran 
the sap down in a. Champion Evaporator, manufactured at Richford, 
Vt., and I found with same treatment the sugar darker than from the 
sugar maple. The sugar seemed to taste as well, however, but would 
color tea slightly and seemed finer grained. I think, however, with 
sufficient care to exclude all juice of the bark, the sugar would be as 
handsome as any. The tree matures in about one-half the time required 
by the sugar maple and lives about one-half as long. After a growth of 
twenty-five years, it is almost impossible to find a tree without more 
or less dead branches, especiall}' if in cleared land. It never reaches 
the majestic size of the sugar maple. It can be easih' propagated 
by seeds, same as other varieties. 

Acer dasycarpum, Ehrh. 

White, Soft, or River Maple. A tree sometimes sixty or seventy 
feet in height, and four or five feet in diameter, although usually not 
more than forty or fifty, with a diameter of twelve or eighteen inches. 
A graceful tree, with deepW cut leaves, ripening its fruit the' earliest 
of any of the maples. With u^ it is closely confined to the banks of 
the larger streams, and therefore forms a small proportion of our 
forests. It has soft wood, is of very rapid growth, and is the maple 
so largely used to plant on the prairies west of the Mississippi. Does 
not produce as much sap as the two former varieties but is well 
worth tapping. 

Acer Pennsylvanicum^ L. 

Striped Maple or Moosewood, and Acer spicatum, L., Mountain 
Maple, are large shrubs or small trees common to our highland 
woods, the latter especially abundant along the sides of mountain 
brooks. Both are valuable for ornamental planting, but of too small 
size to serve for anything else but fuel. The sap from this maple is 
much the sweetest of any, averaging about ten per cent, of sugar, 
but the tree is seldom in sufficient numbers to tap, as a business. 

Acer spicatum. 

Bastard Maple. This variety is common on hillsides where rocks 
are abundant, has winged fruit, but amounts to little more than a 
bush though it is quite abundant in some sections. 

Rohinia pseudacacia, L. 

Common Locust. A valuable timber tree, with us naturalized from 
the South or West. It does best in moist, alluvial soils, but in this 
latitude it is so subject to the attacks of borers as to greatly injure 
its wood and make the tree so short-lived that it is not worth while to 
give it much attention as a forest tree, which is to be regretted, as the 
timber is hard, elastic and exceedingly durable. It is with us a middle- 
-sized tree, but in the South it becomes sixty or eighty feet high, 
with a diameter of three feet. There is great vitality in the root and 



48 

when the tree has been killed the roots will often send up a multitude 
of sprouts to take its place. ^ 

Pnmus Americanum, Marshall. 

In this state called Canada Plum or Pomegranate. A small tree, 
probably introduced from further westward for the sake of the red or 
orange-3'ellow fruit, which is sometimes very sweet and pleasant, but 
usually so acid as to be best adapted for preserving. It is now well 
naturalized in most parts of the state, especially in Essex county. 
This species is probably capable of great improvement as a fruit-tree, 
but as 3-et has been almost wholly neglected by the experimental 
fruit-grower. 

Prunus Pemisylvanicum, L. 

Red or Bird Cherry. A small tree, thirtj' or forty feet high, some 
times a foot in diameter. Everywhere common, but seldom large 
enough to be of any use except for fuel. It springs up most abund- 
antly where woodlands have been wholl}' cleared away, and seems to 
be of use in shading the ground until more valuable trees can take 
root. Of late years the black knot has killed most of them, yet 
miUions spring up in all highland sections where the timber has been 
removed and the fire runs over the ground. It is supposed by many 
that this tree is of spontaneous growtfi, as it is omnipresent, but the 
seeds have great capability of endurance and I presume will vegetate 
under favorable conditions after several hundred years. 

Prunus Virginiana, L. 

Choke Cherry. Is most common near streams up to one thousand 
feet altitude, and conspicuous for its handsome but very astringent 
fruit. Sometimes attains a heightof twenty or thirt3'feet, and is large 
enough for firewood, but sprouts so vigorously as to be a pest where 
more valuable timber is desired. 

Prunus pumila, L. 

Dwarf Cherry. A low, trailing shrub on the sandy shores of the 
Connecticut and probably other of the larger stj-eams. The abundant, 
handsome, dark-red fruit, is insipid and worthless. 

Primus serotina, Ehrh. 

Black Cherry. A tree often sixty to eighty feet high, with a diam- 
eter of two to three feet, the hard, reddish-colored wood taking a high 
polish, and is yearly becoming more valuable for the making of fine 
furniture, finishing the interiors of houses, railroad cars, etc. It 
does not form extensive tracts of woodland by itself, but may be fre- 
quently met with among all species of deciduous trees and in a great 
variety of soil in all parts of the state below two thousand feet above 
the sea. The cherry grown in New England is harder to work than 
that from the Mississippi vallej-, but it is darker colored, and takes a 
much higher polish. As cherry lumber brings readily from thirty to 
sixty dollars per one thousand' feet, and is of very rapid growth, it 
cannot fail to prove an excellent species for planting, the only object- 
ion being that it is the host of the tent caterpillar ; but the danger to 



49 

fruit trees from this source is probably exaggerated. 

It seems probable from my experiments on its growth that a large 
profit can be realized by planting. The young trees are stronger if the 
stone is cleaned from the pulp before planting. They should be plant- 
ed as near as six feet apart if you would get valuable results in tim- 
ber, with good bodies to trees ; then gradual h' thin out as occasion 
requires to one-half the number. 

Spirea saticifoUa, L. 

Meadow Sweet, White Hardback. Common. A showy plant, but 
of no utility. It may be killed b}' constant cropping, say three or 
four times each 3'ear. 

Spirea tomentosa, L. 

Red Hardback, Steeple-bush. Has the same range as the preced- 
ing, but not usually so abundant. Flpwers pink, showy. 

Ruhus odoratus, L. 

Purple Flowering Raspberr}^, Mulbeny. A handsome shrub, with 
large three to five-lobed leaves and large purple flowers. Grows in 
moist, rocky woods. Common to the northern parts of the state and 
the Connecticut valley. Fruit of no value, but the plant worthy of 
cultivation for ornament. 

Riibus strigosus, Michx. 

Wild Red Raspberry. Well known everywhere, but it is best de- 
velbped in the mountain region and northward. It forms dense 
thickets in forest clearings, and the abundant fruit is picked and sold 
in town and city. 

By mixing the fruit with a small quantity' of Boracic acid it may 
be kept perfectly fresh for a long time. 

Rubus occidentalism L. 

Black Raspberry, Thimbleberr}-. The black-cap raspberry of culti- 
vation. It propagates itself from the tips of the long recurved 
shoots. It i« more southern in its range than the preceding, and 
much less abundant. 

Rubus villosus, Ait. 

High Blackberry. Much more bushy than the two preceding, and 
freely armed with stout, recurved prickles. It varies in height from 
a few inches to five or six feet, and each kind of bush seems to re- 
present a ditferent variet}' of fruit. It is common in most places. 
The fruit abundant, most of it good quality, and much in demand. 
Like the red raspberry it flourishes best where woods have been clear- 
ed awa}-. Does well under cultivation. 

Rubus Canadensis^ L. 

Low Blackberr}', Dew Berr^-. Connects with the smallest forms of 
the preceding. It is a low, extensivel}' trailing, very bristlv shrub, 
common to the upper terraces of the streams and dry hillsides. Fruit 
abundant and well flavored. Ripe earlier than the high blackberry. 



50 

Ruhus hispidits, L. 

Evergreen, Swamp Blackberr}'. Common to damp, highland woods. 
It has very slender, trailing stems, evergreen leaves, and small, spicy, 
sour fruit. 

Rosa, L., Rose. 

The rose genus in Vermont is represented bj' three native species. 

Rosa Carolina, L. Swamp Rose, is the largest and is most 
abundant in the eastern part of the state, being sparingly found only 
in the lower Connecticut valley. It grows three or four feet high, 
forming thickets in swamps and low ground. 

Rosa blayida. Ait. Smooth Rose. Grows in dry, sterile soils, and 
is usually only a few inches high. The earliest flowering species. 

Rosa hicida, Ehrhart. Shining Rose. A slender, few-flowered 
species, with shining leaves. In moist, shady soils ; not very common. 

Rosa rubigifiosa, L. Sweet Briar. Naturalized from Europe, and 
is common in old pastures in many parts of the state. 

Cratagus coccinea , L . 

Scarlet Fruited Thorn. A low, bushy tree. Common. Fruit ovoid, 
a half an inch in diameter; bright red. 

Crataegus Crus-galli, L. 

Cockspur Thorn. Frequent throughout the state up to two thou- 
sand feet altitude. It is, however, most abundant on the highlands. 
Sometimes has a diameter of six inches, and a height of twenty-five 
feet. Fruit smaller and not so deep red as that of the preceding. 
The wood of the thorn is yellowibh-white, very hard, and heavy ; takes 
a high polish, but is too difficult to work to be of much use. Both 
species are well adapted to hedge planting. 

Pyrus arhulifolia, L. 

Choke Berry. A slender shrub, common to moist grounds. The 
abundant flowers white or tinged with rose, and the handsome black 
or purple fruit so astringent as to be worthless. 

Pyrus Americana, D. C. 

American Mountain Ash. A small tree with pinnate leaves, and a 
bushy habit. It bears a profusion of white flowers, followed by the 
bright red fruit, and is well known as an ornamental tree. The common 
pear can be readily grafted into it, and flourishes well for a while. 
It i!5 a highland tree, common to the Connecticut water-shed, and 
very abundant on the sides of mountains, where it sometimes becomes 
a foot in diameter and tliirty feet high. 

Amelanchier Canadensis, T. and G. 

Shad-bush, Wild Sugar Plumb, or Service-berry. The first name 
given because it blossoms when the shad first begin to ascend the 
rivers. This species presents several well marked varieties, the largest 
of which, the var Botrypium, becomes a small tree, twenty or thirty 



51 

feet high, and from six to ten inches in diameter ; the wood solid, 
heavy, and susceptible of a good polish, but probably' never used for 
anything except fuel. The variety oUongifoUa bears the largest and 
best-flavored fruit, and is a tall shrub, growing in moist soils usually. 
In England the fruit of the shad-bush is said to much improve by 
cultivation, and doubtless something can be made of it by the pomo- 
logist. 

Ribes Cynosbati, L. 

Prickly-fruited Gooseberry. Common to the highlands, and the 
most widely distributed of our gooseberries. A shrub three or four 
feet high ; the fruit well-flavored, but usually covered with spines. 

Ribes hirtellmn, Michx. 

Smooth-fruited Gooseberry. Connecticut river valley. A smaller 
shrub than the preceding, with smooth, purple, sweet fruit. This spe- 
cies is worthy of cultivation, as those who have cultivated saj' it rivals 
man}'^ usual garden varieties. 

Ribes lacustre, Poir. 

A low, prostrate species, with much-divided leaves, and black, 
currant-like, insipid fruit. It is common in swamps in the north 
part of the state. 

Ribes prostratum, L'Her. 

Fetid Currant. Skunk Currant. A low, half-trailing shrub. The 
leaves, flowers and fruit give out an unpleasant odor, but the fruit is 
not unpleasant to the taste. It is common to moist highland woods. 

Mebes Mubrum, L. 

The Garden Currant is a native, or at least is found in all sections 
of the state. The currant worm and all other insects can be kept 
off by dusting the bushes with the following mixture, which is also 
good to kill cabbage worms or any other insect pest : 50 lbs. cal- 
cined plaster, 8 ounces white arsenic, 4 ounces London purple. Mix 
the arsenic and London pnrple until it is even color, and then mix 
with the plaster until the slight purple tinge is evenly distributed. 
This is not poison enough to injure man or beast, in any quantity 
they would get, and may be put anywhere in sufficient amount to 
kill worms without detriment or danger. The purple color is so 
prominent that its presence is revealed when there is the least quan- 
tity, and it readily washes off of any fruit. 

Hamamelis Virgiyiica. 

Witch Hazel. A large shrub or small tree, everywhere common. 
It generally throws up several stems from the same root, which are 
sometimes three or four inches in diameter. Wood white, close 
grained, taking a good polish; useful for handles of small tools 
and excellent for fuel. Bark medicinal. Remarkable for flowering 
in autiTmn when the leaves are falling. 



52 

Cornus Florida, L. 

Flowering ])ogwood. The largest of the genus, being a tree 
sometimes twenty or thirty feet high, and six inches in diameter ; 
branches grey, wood dense, heavy, vei'y close grained, and taking a 
brilliant polish, and is said to be a good substitute for boxwood. 
The heads of flowers are surrounded by a large involucre, which 
makes it very showy. Fruit bright red. It is very ornamental, but 
is seldom seen in cultivation. In this state its range is limited to the 
south-eastern part, and very near to the Connecticut river. 

Cornus circinata, L'Her. 

Round leaved Dogwood. Moose-ben'y. Stems one or two inches 
in diameter ; four or six feet high, with greenish warty-dotted branch- 
es. Leaves large, nearly round, and woolly beneath. Fruit light 
blue. Connecticut river valley ; most common northward. 

Cornus sericea, L. 

Silky Cornel. Stems slender: few branched, striated with red 
and brown, one or two inches in diameter, and five to ten feet high. 
Common near streams up to one thousand feet altitude. Fruit pale 
blue, and leaves silky beneath. 

Cornus stolonifera, Michx. 

Red Osier Dogwood. Upper Connecticut valley and mountain 
region. A handsome species, forming large clumps by sending up 
an abundance of bright red, purple, osier like shoots, three to six 
feet high. It spreads freely by subterranean suckers. Fruit lead 
color. 

Cornus patiiculata, L'Her. 

Panicled Cornel. Shrub four to six feet high, with grey branches. 
Grows on dry grounds, and ranges nearly with the flowering dog- 
wood. Fruit white. 

Cornus alternifoUa, L. 

Alternate-leaved Cornel, Dog-ackerme. Everywhere common in 
moist woods. Next to the flowering dogwood in size, being some- 
times twenty feet high and four or five inches in diameter ; branches 
wide spreading from near the top, giving it a flat head. Fruit blue. 
All the cornels are worthy of a place in a collection of ornamental 
shrubs, because both of the flowers and fruit. 

JVyssa sylvatica, Marshall. 

Hornbeam, Sour Gum, Pepperidge, or Tupelo. A tree sometimes 
sixty or seventy feet high, with a diameter of from eighteen inches 
to three feet, and stitf, angular branches. It usually grows in 
swamps, and in moist, low lands. It is most common in valleys, and 
is seldom seen in the north part of the state. Wood remarkable for 
its spiral grain, which renders it unwedgeable. It is seldom used, 
but if not too soft its non-splitting property would make 
it a good material for wagon-wheel hubs. It has been thought 



53 

equal to holly as a cabinet wood by those who ha-ve experimented 
with it. 

Lonicera pnrviflora^ Lam. 

Small Honeysuckle. A half-climbing shrub, with the smooth 
leaves joined together at the base, and greenish-yellow flowers. 
Found sparingly along the Connecticut and its largest tributaries. 

Lonicera cilliata, Muhl. 

Fly Honeysuckle. A straggling shrub three or four feet high, 
with pale yellow flowers and red fruit. Common in rocky highland 
woods and northward. 

Lonicera coerulea, L. 

Mountain-Fly Honeysuckle. Common in moist grounds on the 
Connecticut water- shed, and in alpine ravines and northward. A 
half-trailing shrub, forming matted tufts. Flowers straw-color, and 
fruit blue. 

Diervilla trifida^ Moench. 

Bush Honeysuckle. A low, upright shrub, with ovate, taper- 
pointed leaves, and honey colored flowers. Fruit a dry capsule. 
Common everywhere in rocky places. 

Samhucus Canadensis^ L. 

Common Elder. A shrub five to ten feet high, with soft- wooded 
stems, remarkable for the size of the pith they contain. It is every- 
where common. Flowers white. Fruit juicy, black-purple, very 
abundant, and used to make a medicinal cordial. 

Samhucus pubens, Michx. 

Red beiTied Elder. Grows larger and more tree-like than the 
preceding species, and is sometimes fifteen feet high, with a diame- 
ter of three or four inches ; pith brown, and the flowers often pur 
pie tinged. Berries bright red, making the plant very showy. This 
is a highland species, common northward. 

Viburnum Lentago, L. 

Sweet Viburnum, or Sheep-berry. A large shrub or small tree, 
and seldom seen above six hiindred feet altitude. The leaves are 
ovate, sharp pointed, thick and shining. Flowers white, as are those 
of all the Viburnums. Fruit in laige bunches, bright blue, edible. 
Wood hard and heavy, brown ; takes a fine polish. 

Viburnum nudum., L. 

"Withe Rod. Stems slender, sometimes two inches in diameter 
and six or eight feet high. Grows 'in clumps, and is eveiy where 
common in wet lands. Fruit blue. Wood gives out a disagreeable 
odor when burned. 

Vibuanum dentatum, L. 

Arrow Wood. Leaves broad ovate, sharply toothed. Stems slen- 



54 

der, very straight, with pale grey bark. Grows in large bunches, 
and found everywhere in bogs and very wet places. This species 
was used by the Indians for the shafts of arrowa. 

Viburnum aceri/blium, L. 

Maple -leaved Viburnum. A slender shrub, with three-lobed 
leaves. Common on the highlands among deciduous trees. Fruit 
red, turning purple when fully ripe. 

Viburnum Opulus, L. 

High Cranberry Bush. Shrub five to ten feet high, with light 
grey bark. Strongly three-lobed leaves, and bright red acid fruit, 
which is often used as a substitute for cranberries. The snow-ball 
tree of cultivation is derived from this species. Common. 

Viburnum lantanoides, Michx. 

Hobble Bush. A low, straggling shrub, the reclining branches 
often taking root. The leaves are broad ovate, heart-shaped, rusty- 
scurfy beneath, as are also the tips of the branches. Flowers hand- 
some, in broad, flat cymes. Fruit at first dull red, then black. Com- 
mon in moist woods everywhere, but especially so northward. 

Vibxirnum pubescetis, Pursh. 
A shrub about six feet high. Flowers white. Rocky banks. 

Viburnum panciflorum, Py. 
A small shrub with white flowers. Mansfield mountain. 

Cephnlanthus occidentalis, L. 

Button Bush. A coarse, smooth-leaved shrub, growing on the 
borders of ponds and slow streams in the lower Connecticut valley 
Flowers greenish-white, in globular heads. 

Gaylussacia resinosa, T. & G. 

Common Huckleberry. A slender, much-branched shrub, one to 
three feet high, forming a close undergrowth in dry pine woods, etc. 
Only sparingly found in the lower Connecticut valley, rarely reach- 
ing to elevations 1,000 feet above the sea on the southern highlands. 
Fruit usually black, sweet and pleasant, ripe in August, and exten- 
sively gathered and sold. 

Vaccinium, Oxycoccus, L. 

Small Cranberry. A very slender, trailing shrub, with white, 
spotted berries the size of pease. Chiefly in peat-bogs. 

Vacci^iium Macrocarpon, Ait. 

Large Cranberry. The well known species whose fi-uit is exten- 
sively sold in the markets. Trailing, like the preceding, but a larger 
plant. In peat bogs and moist ground of all parts of the state. 



55 

Vaccinium Vitis-Idoea, L. 

Cow BeiTy, Mountain Cranberry. A low, tufted and matted ever- 
green, common to the alpine Green Mountain region. Fruit small, 
red, abundant, resembling in flavor and used for the same purpose 
as cranberries. 

Vaccinium uliginosum, L. 

Bog Bilberry. A dwarf, tufted, alpine species, with black, sweet 
berries. 

Vaccinium coespitosutn, Michx. 

Same habitat as the preceding, growing in small tufts. Fruit 
large, exceUent. 

Vaccinium, JF'ennsylvanicum,, Lam. 

Dwarf Blueberry, Low Blueberry. Six inches to two feet high, 
usually forming strag-gling masses in dry woods and old fields. 
Common, and well known throughout the southeastern parts of the 
state. Fruit abundant, blue or black. The earliest blueberrj' of the 
markets. 

Vaccitiiuni Canadense, Kalm. 

Canada Blueberry. A straggling shrub, stouter than the preceding, 
which it resembles. Leaves and branches downy. Berries often 
' oval, blue, somewhat acid. Probably never seen in the markets. 
Northern part of state. 

Vaccinium vacillans, Solander. 

Half-high Blueberry. Sugar Blueberry. Two or three feet high, 
with upright, slender, yellowish-green branches. Fruit harder, and 
keeps longer than that of any other species ; usually very round, 
bright blue, and spicy. It has the most limited range of any of our 
blueberries. It is common on pine barrens, and sparingly found 
very near the Connecticut river as far north as the rapids at White 
River. 

Vaccinium corymhosum, L. 

High Blueberry. A shrub ten to fifteen feet high, with stems 
sometimes two inches in diameter. It grows in moist lands and 
swamps. The wood is hard and very close grained, useful for the 
handles of small tools. No attempts have been made to cultivate it, 
although it doubtless could be cultivated to advantage. 

Cassandra calyculata, Don. 

Leather Leaf. A low, many-branched shrub, with brownish- green, 
leathery leaves, and one-sided racemes of small white flowers. Fruit 
a dry capsule. Forms dense masses in bogs, and along the shores 
of ponds. 

Andromeda polifolia, L. 

A handsome little evergreen shrub, rarely found, in peat-bogs. 
Flowers large, white or purple tinged. Leaves with revolute mar- 
gin ; white beneath. 



56 

Andromeda ligustrina, Muhl. 

Male Blueberry, Stagger Bush. Shrub three or four feet high, 
with yellowish bark. In the same situations and much resembling 
the high blueberry, but the fruit a dry, globular pod instead of a 
berry. Sometimes poisonous to cattle. Southern parts of the state. 

Kalraia latifolia, L. 

Spoon-wood, Spoon hunt, or Mountain Laurel. A much branched 
and contorted shrub, four to fifteen feet high, with broad, lance- 
shaped, evergreen leaves, and bearing a profusion of large white or 
rose-colored flowers, stems sometimes four inches in diameter. Wood 
hard, heavy, and close-grained. Grows in swamps and moist, rocky 
woods, and it is very ornamental, but makes an undergrowth very 
difficult to walk through. 

Kalmia angusti folia, L, 

Sheep Laurel, Lamb Kill. A slender shrub, with oblong, ever- 
green leaves, which are pale beneath, and bears a profusion of small, 
deep rose-colored flowers. Has the same range as the preceding, 
and is poisonous to sheep. 

Kalmia gla%ica. Ait. 

Pale Laurel. Stems slender, straggling, eight to ten inches high ; 
leaves oblong, white beneath : flowers few, lilac-purple ; sub-alpine 
and in peat bogs; rare. 

Rhododendron maximum, L. 

Great Laurel. A shrub eight to fifteen feet high, the broad, 
wedge shaped, evergreen leaves six to ten inches long. Stems two 
to four inches in diameter. Wood hard and fine grained. Flowers 
large and very showy ; rose color, turning Avhite. Swamps. Local 
in this state at Groton pond. 

Ledum latifolium. Ait. 
Labrador Tea. A low, evergreen shrub, with white flowers, and 
the leaves brown, woolly beneath. Sub-alpine ; Mountain region, 
and rarely in cold bogs in other parts of the state. 

Ilex verticillata, Gray. 

Black Alder, Winter Berry. An upright, slender shrub, the abun- 
dant, bright red fruit growing close to the branches, and persistent 
long into the winter. Wet grounds. Everywhere common. 

Ilex laevigata, Gray. 

Smooth Winter Berry. Similar in habit to the last, but the 
lanceolate leaves shining above, and the larger berries on short stems. 
Swamps and borders of ponds ; southern part of the state. 

Nemopanthes Canadensis, D. C. 
Mountain Holly. A many branched shrub, six or eight feet high 



57 

Bark light grey. The showy, deep-red fruit on long, slender stems. 
Very abundant on the highlands and northward, but common to all 
parts of the state. 

Fraxinus Americana^ L. 

White Ash. One of the most widely distributed and valuable of 
our forest trees, but nowhere occurring in large quantities. It grows 
in a great variety of soils, but attains its best development in a 
strong, rocky soil, along with beech, birch, and maples. Although 
its wood is not so heavy as that of the European ash it is superior 
to it in strength and elasticity, and endures exposure to the weather 
moderately well. It is so well known, and adapted to so many differ- 
ent uses, such as carriage making, the handles for agricultural im- 
plements, oars for boats, etc., that it is becoming scarce and more 
valuable each year. It is of such rapid growth that it is one of the 
best trees for plauting, either for fuel or timber. 

Fraxinus pubeseens, Lam. 

Red or Downy Ash. Alluvial soil in the Connecticut valley as far 
north as Bradford. A smaller tree than the white ash, which it 
much resembles. Not abundant enough to be of value. 

Fraxinus sambucifoUa, Lam. 

Black or Brown Ash. A medium sized tree, common to swamps 
and wet lands throughout the state. The old growth yields lumber 
much used for interior finishing anl cabinet work. The easily sep- 
arated layers of the young trees are very tough, and used for coarse 
baskets and hoops, bands for bailing hay, etc. The wood is hard, 
and considered good for fuel, but not very durable when exposed to 
the weather. 

Platanus occidentalism L. 

Buttonwood, Sycamore, or Western Plane-tree. Occurs in the 
Connecticut valley. Generally found very near the streams and 
much more abundant formerly than now, as this species, although 
vigorous enough in the Mississippi valley, seems as if falling into 
decay and gradually disappearing from New England. It is a large 
and handsome tree. The outer bark flakes off in large scales and 
shows the white inner bark, thus giving the surface a peculiar mot- 
tled appearance. The wood is moderately hard, said to be of value 
for cabinet work, but does not bear exposure to the weather. It is 
easily cultivated and bears the dust and smoke of cities better than 
most trees. Is a rapid grower in proper soil. 

Sassafras officinale, Nees. 

Sassafras. A tree usually twenty or thirty feet high. Branches 
irregular. Leaves dark green, entire or lobed. Flowers greenish- 
yellow, and the fruit blue. Along the Connecticut valley to Bellows 
Falls. Wood aromatic, durable, but not usually large enough to be 
of much use ; the bark aromatic and medicinal. 

5 



58 

Ijindera Benzoin, Meisner. 

Fever-bush, Spice-busli. A slender shrub, four to six feet high, 
■with ash grey bark. Leaves oval, dark green. Fruit red. Whole 
plant aromatic. It has the same range as the sassafi'as. 

Dirca palustris, L. 

Leatherwood, Wicopy, or Moose wood. A stout, much-branched 
shrub, with yellowish bark, the yellow flowers appearing before the 
leaves. Bark exceedingly tough and employed by the Indians for 
thongs. Grows on rich, moist hillsides, and is sometimes cultivated 
for ornament. Connecticut river valley and near Burlington. 

TJlmus Americana, Willd. 

White Weeping or American Elm. One of the largest and most 
imposing of our forest trees, never forming groves by itself, yet 
common in all parts of the state. The finest specimens grow 
in the rich alluvium of the river valleys. It has been more 
largely planted along the streets of the cities and villages than 
any other tree. The wood is light, strong and tough, with the 
fibres interlaced ; difficult to season without warping, yet it is much 
used for the hubs of carriage wheels, the wood for brushes, ox- 
yokes, etc. It is a very heavy feeder, and consequently of rapid 
growth, and its ashes are said to yield more potash than those of 
other trees. 

Ulmus racernosa, Thomas. 

Cork Elm. Kare ; occurs in damp soil. It is common from 
western New York to the Mississippi. 

TJlmus fulva, Michx. 

Red or Slippery Elm. Valley of the Connecticut, usually disap- 
pearing within ten miles of the river. Ranges as far north as St. 
Johnsbury. A middle-sized tree. Heart wood reddish, heavy and 
durable ; the mucilaginous inner bark well known in medicine. This 
species does not occur in quantities large enough to be of practical 
value. 

Celtis occidentalis, L. 

Hackberry. A medium- sized tree, resembling the elm, which oc- 
curs sparingly along the Connecticut as far north as Wells River. This 
species develops into several botanically interesting varieties, and is 
common along the streams of the Middle states and the Mississippi 
valley. 

Juglans cinerea, L. 

Oilnut or Butternut. A very valuable tree, both for its timber 
and nuts. When grown in the forest, it is from two to three feet in 
diameter and sixty feet high, but in open land develops a short 
trunk and heavy, wide -spreading top. It prefers the alluvial soil of 
the river valleys, or fertile, moist hillsides, and is common through- 
out the Connecticut valley and along its tributaries. It is one of our 
best trees for timber culture, but such a gross feeder that it should 
not be planted near cidtivated fields. 



59 

Carya alba, Nutt. 

Sliagbark Hickory. The largest and most valuable of our hicko- 
ries. In the eastern part of the state it ranges in the Connecticut 
valley to White river and up that stream and common near Lake 
Champlain. Never found naturally very far from the alluvium of 
the streams, but will grow in almost any well drained soil when 
planted. The nuts are readily sold at from two to four dollars per 
bushel, and give a considerable revenue to some of the farmers. 
The wood is considered the standard fuel, and first-class for carriage 
work and tool handles of various kinds. It should be largely 
planted, and the work not left wholly for the squirrels to do, as is 
now the case. 

Carya porcina, Nutt. 

Pig Walnut or White Hickory. A much smaller tree than the 
preceding, seldom being more than eighteen or twenty inches in di- 
ameter, but in the forest it grows tall and slender. Wood very val- 
uable for axe handles, wagon thills, spokes, hoops for cooperage, etc. 
Nuts sweet and edible, but not equal to those of the shagbark. It 
is common in the Connecticut valley and is abundant on the hills 
near the river in the vicinity of the state line, but disappears with 
the foregoing species as one goes north. 

Carya tomentosa, Nutt. 

Mocker Nut or Black Hickory, common in the South and West. In 
Vermont it is found sparingly. The quality of the wood resembles 
that of C. porcina, but the tree becomes larger. 

Carya amara, Nutt. 

Bitter Hickory, called also Pig Walnut. A tall, slender, very 
smooth-barked species, worthless except for fuel, as the wood is brit- 
tle and free grained. Interesting botanically because it finds its 
eastern limit in the Connecticut valley, where it ranges further north 
than any other of our hickories, the limit being at Wells River. 
Fruit very thin-shelled and the kernel intensely bitter. It prefers a 
moist, fertile soil, and at the West, where it is common, it is called 
Swamp hickory. 

Quercus alba, L. 

WTiite Oak. The most valuable of our oaks. Seldom seen at ele- 
vations much above six or seven hundred feet above the sea. It grows 
to a large size, and Vermont white oak in quality is unequalled by any 
grown in the United States. It is put to a greater variety of uses 
that require strength, hardness and elasticity, than any wood we 
have. Very little of the old growth formerly in demand for ship- 
building is left. This species prefers a strong, well-drianed soil, 
and grows from the acorns much faster than is generally supposed, 
and should be fostered as much as possible. In the Connecticut 
valley it is confined to the hills in the immediate vicinity of the 
river, extending up the tributary streams a short distance, and dis- 
appears entirely before reaching the mouth of the Passumpsic. 



60 

Quercus hicolor, Willd. 

Swamp "White Oak. A large-sized, very rough-barked, valuable 
species, growing in low, moist ground. Not common. 

Quercus Prinus, L. 

Kock Chestnut Oak, Mountain Oak. A medium-sized tree. The 
wood strong and durable, and considered excellent for railroad 
sleepers. Occurs in belts or patches in the eastern part of the state. 
In the Connecticut valley it barely reaches our limits, on the hills of 
the south part of Brattleboro. 

Quercus ilicifolia, Wang. 

Barren or Scrub Oak. Has the same range as the last, and also 
appears along the lower Connecticut. A much branched and con- 
torted shrub, six to fifteen feet high, forming dense thickets ; very 
difficult to eradicate, and impeding the growth of better timber. 

Quercus ti7ictoria, Bartrara. 

Black or Yellow Oak. A large species ; only seen within three or 
four miles of the Connecticut river. The wood is elastic, strong, 
free-splitting and durable, the bark very rich in tannin, and gives a 
yellow dye. This species is not valued as its merits deserve, for it 
would serve equally as well as white oak for many purposes. 

Quercus coccinea, Wang. 

Scarlet Oak. Varieties, tinctoria Gray (black oak), and ambigua 
Gray (gray oak). While all are occasionally seen they are scarce, 
and no I as valuable as other branches of the family. 

Quercus mac7'0carpa, Mx. 

Burr Oak and Q. prinoides, Willd, are found in the state, but not 
common ; also Q. Muhlenbergia, Engl, is found on Gardner's island, 
Lake Champlain, Pringle. 

Quercus rubra, L. 

Ked Oak. The most widely distributed and largest of our oaks. 
Very common in all parts of the state up to 1,500 feet above the sea, 
and only disappears in the far north. The timber is not nearly so 
heavy as that of our other species, but, from the freedom with which 
it could be split and worked, the old growth has been mostly cut. 
Red Oak grows much more rapidly than the other kinds, and attains 
a diameter of four or five feet, with a height of seventy or eighty. 
The younger growth is now much used for the bent work in chair 
manufacture. It can be cultivated with great advantage. 

Fagus ferrugin.ea. Ait. 

Beech. This is essentially a highland tree, and does not become 
common until an altitude of 500 feet above the sea is reached. It 
is a common tree on the Connecticut water-shed, and enters largely 
into the composition of the hard wood forests of Essex county. In 
the south part of the state the best of it has been cut and used for 



61 

chair stock, biicket hoops, etc. As it depends upon the seed alene 
for its propagation, it does not hold its own well in company with 
other trees, but is considered a valuable tree to grow. Wood dense 
and heavy ; not very liable to warp, but easily perishable when ex- 
posed to the weather. It cannot well be transplanted if of any size, 
but can be readily planted where you desire it to grow. 

Castanea vulgaris, Lam, var. Americana, A. 

Chestnut. This well known and very valuable tree has a rather 
limited range in this state, but grows in the southern part near the 
Connecticut river as far north as Windsor. The large timber has 
long ago been cut, but it is of such rapid growth that it yields large 
quantities of railroad ties in short periods of time. The wood is 
very durable when exposed to the weather, and has been much em- 
ployed in fencing. It is much used as a cabinet wood, and for inte- 
rior work of houses, building-timber, etc., and its planting should 
be encouraged wherever it will grow. It flourishes best in strong, 
well drained soil. 

Corylus Americana, Watt. 

Common Wild Hazel. A slender shrub, forming dense thickets, 
mostly in the river valleys and southern exposures on the hillsides. 
Stems sometimes two inches in diameter, eight to fifteen feet high. 
Nuts edible; smaller than the English filbert, which they resemble; 
enclosed in a leathery, rounded involucre. The squirrels get the 
bulk of the fruit. Possibly it might be improved so as to rival its 
English cousin. 

Corylus rostrata, Ait. 

Beaked Hazel. A smaller species than the preceding. Common 
northward, in rich woods. Fruit enclosed in a long, beaked in- 
volucre, and in size and quality closely resembling the preceding 
species. 

Ostrya Virginica, Willd. 

Hop Hornbeam, Iron Wood, Lever Wood. A slender tree, with 
light-colored bark, brown-tipped branches, and birch-like leaves. 
Fruit enclosed in inflated sacs, which resemble those of the hop. 
Seldom more than forty feet high, with a diameter of a foot or 
eighteen inches. Wood white, very hard and stiff. Occurs in all 
parts of the state, biit most abundantly along the highlands and 
noi-thward. 

Garpinus Americana, Michx. 

American Hornbeam, Blue or River Beech. A large shrub or low 
tree, with wide-spreading branches, and blue-gray, fluted trunk. 
Wood hard, white and heavy, but too small to be of much service. 
Grows throughout the state, near the larger streams. 

Myrica Gale, L. 

Sweet Gale. Shnib two or three feet high, growing along the 
borders of ponds and in wet places; Found chiefly south of the 
White Mountains. Leaves aromatic. 



62 

Comptonia asplenifolia, Ait. 

Sweet Fern. A low, bushy shrub, with sweet-scented, fern-like 
leaves. Grows best in dry, sterile situation. Ranges with the white 
oak in the Connecticut valley. 

Betula lenta, L. 

Black Birch. A tree sometimes two to four feet in diameter, but 
usually not more than eighteen inches or two feet. Bark dark col- 
ored, scaling from the trunk when old ; heart wood reddish — this spe- 
cies is therefore sometimes called Cherry or Mahogany Birch. The 
wood is heavier than that of the other birches, and takes the best 
polish, is much used in turning and cabinet-work, and makes a su- 
perior fuel. 

Betula lutea, Michx. 

Yellow Birch. The largest of our birches, often being three or 
four feet in diameter, and sixty or seventy feet high. The bark of 
the young tree is yellow, whence comes the common name. It grows 
in all parts of the state, but is most abundant in places which are 
more than 500 feet above the sea level. The wood is nearly as valu- 
able as that of the preceding species, which it much resembles in 
grain and density. It is much used in chair manufacture, and like 
all species of birch yields superior charcoal. 

Betula papyrifera, Marshall. 

White Birch, Canoe Birch. This species is found in all parts of 
the state. It is the most common on the highlands. It is conspic- 
uous because of its very white bark, which was used by the Indians 
for making their canoes ; and as it is easily separated into thin lay- 
ers, it can be used for a variety of purposes, like the making of bas- 
kets, temporary pots for transplanting young plants, writing upon, 
etc. This tree is sometimes two or three feet in diameter, and sixty 
or seventy feet high ; the wood moderately hard, yet capable of a 
good polish, and much used for spools, bobbins, chair workj boxes, 
etc., and when properly cured makes a good fuel, but very easily 
decays upon exposure to the weather. Being of very rapid growth, 
it is of value for quickly reforesting lands, and preparing for a 
growth of oak, or other slow-growing trees. 

Betula alba, L., var. populifolia, Spach. 

Poplar leaved, White or Grey Birch. A slender tree of small di- 
ameter, and dingy white bark. Most common in eastern part of the 
state. Wood useful as fuel in the vicinity of the large villages, but 
back from such markets it is of more value as a material for making 
charcoal, for which it is excellent. The young shoots are much used 
for hoops, in the making of fish barrels, nail kegs, and other coarse 
cooperage. As it is very easily grown from the seed, and succeeds 
well in the most sterile soils, it could probably be used for a nurse 
in the starting of pine and other trees, which will not grow in such 
places without some protection when first sown. 



63 

Betula piimila, L. 

Low Birch. Shrubby ; two to eight feet high. Rare. 

Betula glandulosa, Michx. 

Dwarf Birch. A slender, half-traihng species, confined to the al- 
pine region of Green Mountains. 

Ahius viridis, D. C. 

Green or Mountain Alder. A stout shrub, with bright green col- 
ored branches. Forms dense thickets in the ravines, and occurs 
sparingly throughout the state. 

Alnus incana, Willd. 

Common or speckled Alder. A tall shrub, with stems one to four 
inches in diameter, and having few branches. Well known as form- 
ing thickets along all of the smaller streams, and in swampy places. 
Wood soft, of some use for fuel, and the charcoal made of it some- 
times used in the manufacture of gunpowder. 

Alnus serrulata, Ait. 

Common Alder. This is the usual species and found almost every- 
where through the length and breadth of the state. An excellent 
fuel and good for charcoal but grows so small that it is quite useless. 

Salix Candida, Willd. 

Hoary Willow. Shrub six to eight feet high, with narrow, lance- 
shaped leaves, downy above, and white woolly beneath. In bogs. 

Salix hnviilis., Marshall. 

Prairie Willow. Usually three or four feet high, with wedge-oblong 
downy or woolly leaves. Runs into many varieties, and is the com- 
mon dwarf willow of dry hillsides and barren plains. 

Salix discolor, Muhl. 

Pussy Willow. Glaucous Willow. Tree like, ten to fifteen feet high, 
large enough for fuel. Low grounds and moist hillsides. Flowers 
golden. Among the earliest of the willows. 

Salix sericea, Marshall. 

Silky Willow. A slender species, forming upright clumps five or 
six feet high, in the vicinity of streams ; leaves very narrow, smooth 
above, fine silky beneath. Flowers greenish. 

Salix cordata, Muhl. 

Heart leaved Willow. Stems five or six feet long ; inclined, or 
half-trailing ; leaves narrow, heart-shaped at the base. The most 
common willow along the sand-bars and banks of the larger streams. 

Salix livida, Wahl, var. occidentalis. 
Livid Willow. Ten or fifteen feet high ; usually with a short 



64 

trunk and a much-bi'anched top. Leaves very veiny, and livid 
when first expanding- in spring. Common throughout the highlands. 
Prefers rather dry soil. 

Salix ehlorophylla, Anders. 

Green Willow. Alpine ravines of the Mountains ; rare, and little 
known. 

Salix lucida, Mxihl. 

Shining Willow. A very handsome species ; rather common near 
streams. Usually ten or fifteen feet high, with broad, ovate, taper- 
pointed, shining leaves. Worthy of culture for ornament. 

Salix nigra, Marsh. 

Black Willow. The only one of our native species which rises to 
the dignity of a tree. This one is often forty feet high, and a foot in 
diameter. It confines itself very closely to the borders of the larger 
streams. The leaves are very long and narrow, taper pointed. 

Salix alba, L. 

White Willow. This species, which often becomes a tree three or 
or four feet in diameter, was introduced from Europe, and has be- 
come well naturalized throughout most parts of the state. The wood 
is light, strong, durable, and useful for many purposes. This 
species is the one so extensively planted in the Western states for 
wind-breaks, fencing, and fuel. With us it is better than any other 
tree to plant along river banks where they are in danger of being 
undeiTQined by freshets. 

Salix longifolia, Miahl. 

Long-leaved willow. A common Western species, which finds its 
eastern limit along the Connecticut river, occurring from Westmins- 
ter to the Massachusetts line. The slender shoots are better than 
any other American species for basket-work. 

Salix Sahylonica, Tourn. 

Naturalized by cultivation. 

Salix Balsamifera, Pringle. 

Mt. Mansfield. 

Salix fragilis, L. 

Escaped fi'om cultivation, for osiers. 

Salix myrtelloedes, L. 
Swamps. 

Salix petiolaris, Sm. 
Charlotte. 

Populus tremuloides^ Michx. 

.American Aspen. Called Quaking Asp in the Rocky Mountains. 
The most widely distributed of our poplars, being found in all parts 



65 

of the state, up to 3,000 feet altitude, and in all varieties of soils ex- 
cept deep swamps. Usually a small tree ten to eighteen inches in 
diameter and forty to sixty feet high. Springs up oftentimes in 
great abundance where woodlands have been entirely cleared. The 
wood, when seasoned under cover, makes excellent fuel, but it easily 
decays when exposed to the weather. This species until recently 
was considered nearly worthless, btit has now become of considera- 
ble value for the manufacture of pulp for paper. 

JPopulus grandidenta, Michx. 

Large toothed Aspen, or Black Poplar. Ranges nearly with the 
last mentioned species, but most abundant within the altitude of 500 
and 2,000 feet above the sea. A tree much larger than the Quaking 
Asp, being sixty to eighty feet high and two feet in diameter. Wood 
very white, of light weight and strong ; good for furniture, interior 
work and for paper-making. 

Populus balsamifera, L. 

Balsam Poplar ; both it and the variety candicans are also called 
Balm of Gilead. A large species. With us it is native of the Con- 
necticut valley, generally near the river, becoming more plentiful 
northward. The variety candicans is rarely found in a wild state, 
but is the form commonly planted, and botanically seems to be a 
transition between this and the next species. This poplar is a very 
rapid grower and makes large timber. The wood is very soft, 
tough-grained, and easily decays. It spreads so rapidly by shoots 
from the roots as to become a pest where the land is at all valuable, 
but it could be often employed in waste lands where a quick-growing 
tree is desirable for fuel. 

JPopulus monilifera, Ait. 

Necklace Poplar. This and the preceding species is known through 
the West as " Cottonwood." It barely comes within our limits in the 
western part of the state, being in the eastern confined to the imme 
diate vicinity of the Connecticut river, and disappears ne ir the north 
part of "Windsor. It is a large, handsome tree, and probably would 
be equal to the other poplars for papei'-making. 

Popular dilitata^ Ait. 

Lombardy Poplar. Quite common and yet a naturalized foreign 
species. If taken care of it is a tall stately tree of rapid growth 
and short life. The branches are so close and so near perpendicular 
that they are apt to split from freezing. If neglected the leaves ac- 
cumulate between the limbs and trunk, and hold water and snow so 
that with freezing the expansion starts the limbs fi*om the trees and 
the limbs die. They were once very popular as shade trees. 

Popxda alba^ L. 
Silver Poplar. Common. 



66 

Popula angulata^ Ait. Not common. 
Pinus strobus, L. 

White Pine. The largest, most useful, and having the greatest 
range of distribution of our conifers, being everywhere common, 
from the sea to 2,500 feet altitude. 

Formerly large forests of this species were common, but these 
magnficent woods have long since disappeared, but a few scattered 
remnants remaining. Specimens have been known which were more 
than two hundred feet high and six or eight feet in diameter. The 
white pine seeds very freely, and the site of the ancient forest is in- 
dicated by tracts of vigorous saplings which in twenty or thirty years 
are fit to cut for pail and fish-barrel staves, laths, clapboards, 
box boards, etc., and in sixty years yield good timber and boards. 
Springing up as it does on so many worn-out and abandoned 
farms, the white pine has made industry and wealth possible to 
many parts of the state which otherwise would have been wholly 
deserted. As it is our most useful evergreen, so it is the easiest 
to cultivate and. also to spring up naturally, or it could not hold 
its own so well against the constant cutting to which it is 
subjected, and in any scheme of forest culture in our state it must 
hold the foremost place. 

Trees of this kind under my own cultivation have reached a diam- 
eter of seventeen inches in twenty-five years, and I believe that the 
attention of all having waste places of good pine land should 
be urged to plant the certainly profitable crop of pines. There is much 
to contemplate that is curious about those trees. They were former- 
ly called the wheel pine because as they grow up towards the sky, 
every foot or two they shoot out five spokes, or lateral branches, and 
these branches keep doing the same, or nearly the same, as they 
start off horizontally, and then curve upward. You will know this 
particular family from all the pine families by their strong predilec- 
tion for the number five. Their perpendicular leader has not always, 
but almost always, exactly five spokes in his wheel. His followers 
may have fewer, but always five if they can. Between the youngest 
hubs, both the leaders and the followers put forth budlets, or leaf 
buds, each producing exactly five leaves, or green needles. These 
budlets are so disposed around the stem, spirally, that if you sever 
the stem above and below any consecutive five, the five groups, of 
five needles each, will shoot into the air in five diflfereut directions, 
generally seventy two degrees apart. This is a wonderfully good ar- 
rangement for catching all the particles of tree-food floating in the 
air— something like that of a whale's mouth, by which that huge an- 
imal is said to live on minute animals floating in the water. This 
arrangement accounts for the family's wonderful tenacity of life. 
Wherever their roots can grapple a foothold among the New England 
rocks, as well as in her plains of sterile sand, they flourish in peren- 
niel green. Breathe balsam into the lungs of the sick, make strong 
men stronger, hoard up pure springs for the thirsty, defy drought, 
beyond all other trees and temper the blasts of winter and the heat 
of summer. In fine they were formerly the beautiful giants of the 



67 

Vermont forests. And their return would be a blessing in many 
ways. Why should not the state offer premiums on second growth 
pine groves? 

Jr'inus rigida, Miller. 

Pitch Pine. This tree when fully grown, is from fifty to seventy 
feet high and two feet in diameter, with heavy, very resinous wood, 
which is well suited for flooring and building timber ; but the old 
growth, which accords with this description, has nearly disappeared, 
and the second growth is short and scrubby, better adapted for fuel 
than anything else. The wood also makes good charcoal. It is to be 
met with, where the soil is favorable, in the southern highlands up 
to 1,000 feet above the sea, and along the Connecticut to the mouth 
of the Passumpsic. 

Pinus resinosa, Ait. 

Ked Pine, also very commonly called Norway Pine, a name which 
is erroneous, as this tree is not a native of Europe. The botanical 
name also is a bad one, as. the wood is not specially resinous. It is 
a very handsome species, growing from sixty to eighty feet high, 
holding well its diameter, and makes excellent building timber and 
floor boards. It ranges with pitch pine, but is less common, being 
usually in groves of from a few acres to several hundreds in extent. 
It will grow well in the sterile soil preferred by the pitch pine, and 
as it is so much more valuable as a timber tree, it is preferable for 
planting in such places. During the first twenty years of gi'owth 
it attains a larger diameter than either the white or pitch pine. 

Picea Banksiana^ Lam. 
Gray Pine. Scarce. 

Picea Mitts. 
Yellow Pine. Not common. 

Picea nigra, Link. 

Black Spruce. Next to the white pine ; the most important ever- 
green of the state. It takes today the lead in numbers in all the 
lumber regions of the country where spruce is desired. The wood 
is light, elastic and strong ; valuable for a great variety of uses, 
both for inside and outside work, paper pulp, etc. In the Green 
Mountain region and northward it grows very rapidly, but on the 
southern highlands where the old growth has been mostly removed, 
the younger does not seem to start quickly, and the timber is coarse 
and knotty. 

Picea alba. Link. 

White Spruce. A Canadian species, abundant around the sources 
of the Connecticut, disappearing at the Fifteen mile Falls on that 
river. It is a medium sized tree, the wood similar to that of the 
black spruce, but the tree more symmetrical in outline, with light 
colored bark, and a bluish-green appearance of the leaves. 

Abies balsaniea, Marshall. 

Balsam Fir. Ranges with the black spruce, and equally common 



68 

with it. It is the most symmetrical of the evergreens ; sometimes at- 
tains two feet in diameter ; is short lived, and until recently consid- 
ered worthless, but is now considered to be good for boards and 
shingles, which bear exposure to the weather as well as the hemlock. 
The trunk is covered with large blisters, which yield the Canada 
balsam employed in medicine and microscopy. It is a rapid growing 
tree and easily cultivated. With my culture it attains fourteen 
inches diameter in twenty-five years. 

Tsuga Canadensis, Carriere. 
Hemlock. The most widely distributed of our evergreens, ranging 
from the sea to 2,000 feet altitude in the mountains, but sparse in 
some sections of the state. A large tree, and when young the most 
graceful of our conifers ; well adapted for ornamental planting. Its 
bark is so much sought after for tanning leather, and the wood for 
boards, shingles and building timber, that the old growth is mostly 
gone. It does not seed as freely as the pines, but with a little care 
and protection can be very easily grown, and a tract of hetalock 
forest would probably yield a revenue next to that of white 
pine. 

Larix Americana, Michx. 

American Larch, Hackmatack, Tamarack. The only deciduous 
leaved conifer found in north eastern United States. A tall, slender 
tree, preferring cold, highland swamps. It is quite abundant in 
some sections, but in others hardly ever seen. The roots strike out 
at right angles from the trunk, generally three or four very large 
ones. The tree is dug up, and four or six feet of the trunk taken 
off with the roots, to be sawn up into the " knees " used in ship- 
building. The timber is hard, very heavy, and diu-able when 
exposed to the weather. Probably inferior to the European 
larch, but would be a good tree to grow upon lands that cannot be 
easily drained. 

Thuya occidentalis, L. 

Arbor Vitse, or White Cedar. This is also abundant in some sec- 
tions and very sparse in others. It has light, soft, very durable 
wood, excellent for shingles, fencing, telegraph poles, etc. It some- 
times attains a diameter of three feet, but not usually more than 
eighteen or twenty inches, and a height of fifty or sixty feet. It is much 
used to plant for evergreen hedges, and in this form is common in 
all towns and villages. 

Juniperus Virginiana, L. 

Red Cedar. A small tree, growing in dry, sterile soil. It is most 
frequent in the south east part of the state. Appears in the Con- 
necticut valley sparingly and about Lake Champlain. Wood very 
durable, and valuable for fuel and fencing, and the handsome, deep 
red heart-wood for ornamental purposes. It has the slowest growth 
of any of our conifers. 

Juniperus communis, L. 

Savin. A prostrate, wide-spreading shrub, which sometimes over- 
runs worn-out lands. Has the same range as the red cedar. 



69 
Taxus baccata, var. Canadensis, L. 

Canadian Yew, or Ground Hemlock. Much like the savin in habit, 
has brownish-green leaves, and the fruit becoming fleshy resembles 
a red berry. Grows in cold, deep woods throughout the state. 

HOW TO OBTAIN SEEDS. 

If after the study of forestry and the species any should desire to 
plant, as I trust they may, there will come a question, how to obtain 
seeds. The Forestry Commission of New Hampshire have answered 
that very well, and I quote from them. 

There will be no ti'ouble in obtaining seeds of the oaks, walnut, 
hickory, beech and chestnut, but of some other species they are not 
equally accessible. The elm and maples sometimes ripen their seeds 
in such profusion as to cover the ground. How best to secure them is 
a conundrum that we leave others to solve. There is the same difl&culty 
in obtaining seeds of evergreens, as they shed their seeds m the fall 
as soon as the frost lifts the scales of their cones. If the cones 
could be gathered before being opened by frost they would give us 
an abundant supply of seeds; but unfoitunately they are beyond 
our reach. Seeds of the pines can sometimes be obtained when tim- 
ber is being cut in the nick of time. 

We have often seen the ground so covered with the pill-like seeds 
of the European linden that, if sugar-coated, the dealer in patent 
medicine might make them available in his business. Fortunately 
there are persons who know how to secure all the different seeds re- 
quired, and there are dealers who make a specialty of supplying them 
in large or small quantities. Forest tree seeds can be ordered of 
almost any seedsman, who will furnish them, if not in stock, with 
very little delay, and at reasonable prices. There is always more or 
less uncertainty about their quality, as there is no general demand 
for them, and they are liable to become so venerable with age as to 
lose their vitality.* 

The best time for gathering all seeds of forest trees is as soon as 
they are ripe, and unless they are planted at once they must be care- 
fully preserved. There is no better way in whicti to keep the seeds 
of conifers than in the package nature has provided for them. Some 
of the small seeds may be kept in the ordinary seed bags of cloth or 
paper, and if stored in a cool, dry place, they will retain their vital- 
ity for several months, possibly for years. 

But dried seeds start slowly; many never grow, and others remain 
in the ground one, two, and even three years before germination. 
For this reason it is better to mix seeds with damp — not wet — sand 
as soon as gathered, especially if the sowing is to be deferred till 
spring. They may be put in boxes having holes in the bottom to 
ensure drainage, and the whole buried in the ground dtu'ing winter. 
The seeds may be separated from^ the sand in spring by screening, or 
they may be sown together in shallow drills, as elsewhere directed. 

*Mr. Thomas Meehau, of Philadelphia, has a full line of tree seeds, cata- 
logues of which may easily be obtained. He is regarded as a very intelligent 
and reliable man. 



70 

The large seeds, such as the hickory and the oak, must never be- 
come dry, neither should they be kept wet and warm. They require 
exposure to frost, which opens their shells and allows the germ and 
radicle to escape at the proper season. 

Spreading nuts and pits upon the ground as soon as gathered, and 
covering lightly with sand or with boards to prevent the depreda- 
tions of squirrels, will carry them throvigh the winter in a perfect 
condition. The shells, having been kept moist and acted upon by 
frost, will be found so loose as to be easily removed with the fin- 
gers ; but if any are still inclined to adhere, a slight tap with the 
hammer will be required. 

The seeds of the chestnut, beech, and some others are covered by 
a thin and not very hard shell ; and if the nuts are planted where 
they are to grow or in nursery rows before becoming dry,they will ger- 
minate with no further trouble. 

NECESSARY PROTECTION. 

In this respect law can aid, and there is need of the law becoming 
more definite and stringent. The laws in force upon this subject 
are as follows : 

Revised Laws, Sec. 4200. A person who carelessly and without 
malice injures or defaces a building belonging to a town or county 
in any manner, or injures shade trees or shrubbery connected with 
such building, or fastens a horse or other animal to the fence, posts 
or trees about such buildings, shall forfeit to the state not less than 
two dollars with full costs. 

Sec. 421 1. Whoever trespasses upon any fair ground of any state, 
county, town, or other incorporated agricultural society or fair, by 
climbing over or breaking through any fence or enclosure thereof, 
or committing any depredations by cutting or destroying any tim- 
ber, tree or water-pipe within such enclosure, or breaking or carry- 
ing away any property owned or controlled by such society or fair, 
shall be fined not less than five, nor more than one hundred dollars, 
and shall be liable civilly for all damages sustained by such wrong 
ful act. 

Acts of 1884, No. 20. A town may, at a legal meeting, the warn- 
ing for which contains an article for that purpose, direct the treas- 
urer to pay to the selectmen a sum not exceeding one per cent of its 
grand list of the preceding year, to be expended by them in premi- 
ums or in any other manner that they may deem most effectual, to 
encourage the planting of shade trees upon the public squares, 
parks or highways, by the owners of adjoining real estate. 

No. 22. A person who wilfiilly injures or destroys a shade or or- 
namental tree standing in a public highway, park or common, burial 
ground or cemetery, or a tree standing in a highway, in a dangerous 
place, which does, or will, when grown, protect travelers from harm, 
shall be fined not more than fifty nor less than five dollars. But this 
section shall not prevent the selectmen or the proper authorities of 
a village from removing such trees, when, in their judgment, the 
public good and convenience requires. 



71 

It will be readily seen that something is needed for forests. The 
great bane of natural growth is fire, and those fires are largely care- 
less fires from clearing, or from fires set on cultivated land by boys 
hunting or by camping out in the vicinity of mountains, lakes or ponds. 
Certainly protection should be given, and such protection as will 
prevent worthless people as well as men who can pay fines from 
setting careless fires. More ample protection for shade trees and 
trees cultivated for fruits and also shrubs, is needed. 

I would also suggest laws offering premiums for the setting out 
or planting of forest areas so much per acre or otherwise as would 
seem best. But there is wisdom in our legislatui'es, and it is said 
that a word to the wise is sufficient. 

CONCLUSION. 

I have thus endeavored to show, by undoubted authorities, the 
great rapidity with which our forests are disappearing, the vast de- 
mand upon them for domestic and manufacturing purposes, the near 
approach of thef time when our home supply will fail, and the imme 
diate necessity of instituting means for the protection and replant 
ing of the forests in our state. Their beneficent influence upon the 
climate and healthfulness of the country, upon agriculture, and upon 
the general prosperity of the people, I have shown, I think, by un- 
questionable evidence. With these facts before us, our duty is plain. 
We must agitate these facts until they are understood and appreci- 
ated — until the representatives of the people of the State of Ver- 
mont shall give us wise laws on the subject of forestry, and thereby 
aid in redeeming the waste places, and rendering them once more 
productive in valuable wood and timber ; until the farmers and fruit- 
growers shall understand that a larger proportion of woodland than 
they now have in this state will greatly enhance their productions 
and enable them to calculate more surely upon the annual crop ; un- 
til the beauty of trees in the landscape shall enhance the pleasures 
of life and minister to the higher aesthetic nature of the people. 

Love for trees is a beautiful sentiment to instill in the hearts of 
the young, and it is the sure stepping-stone to that knowledge and 
appreciation of the beauty and usefulness of trees and forests that 
will lead them to plant, to protect and to nurture trees — " God's first 
temples." 



72 



THE MAPLE SUGAR INDUSTRY. 



The manufacture of maple sugar is of special interest to Vermont 
as a state, as according to the size of the territor}' it is the most pro- 
ductive of any equal area in the maple sugar belt of America. The 
amount manufactured according to the census of 1880 was 11,261,077 
pounds of sugar and 128,091 gallons of molasses; the sale of 
the product brought a sufficient amount of mone}' to average at least 
three dollars a head to every man, woman and child in the state. It 
is manufactured at a time when other work on the farm is not driv- 
ing, and as a whole is profitable. Different manufacturers estimate 
the cost of making the same at from three to eight cents per pound, the 
difference mainly being due to the worth of wood used in boiling the sap. 

TAPPING. 

Experiments in this line have been numerous. I have in 
experimenting been through with some thirty difljerent processes, by 
axe and gauge, by various devices of cutting and boring, also with all 
the various kinds of spouts I have heard of, and the result is that 
the following facts seem to be established : 

First. The sweetest and best sap comes from the previous year's 
growth, and any spout that cuts off" an}' of the sap from this grain is 
not a desirable one. 

Second. Any spout or device that allows the hole to dry up or 
season by the effect of evaporation, is not as desirable as one that 
does not. 
Third. The smoother and more perfect the cut, the better the sap flow. 

Fourth. The nearer the ground the tree can be consistently, tapped 
the larger the amount of sugar. 

TAPPING INSTRUMENTS. 

Of all I have tested the oval-lipped bit, with a small screw, one- 
half inch in diameter, I deem best for the purpose. As the nail to 
hang a bucket on kills the trees by the leakage of sap around them that 
sours on the trees, more than the bit, I would never drive one, but 
would set the bucket on the gi'ound or hang it on the spout. 

SAP SPOUT. 

It may be expected that I will name the spout showing the best 
behavior under critical experiment. I believe the Post spout, so 
called, manufactured by C. C. Post of Burlington, as now improved, 
is the best yet invented. It is now made of a combination metal that 
will not rust or corrode. The sap is retained in the hole in which 
the spout is driven so it cannot be dried as it otherwise would. The 
bucket, whether wood or tin, can be hung on the spout, and with the 
notched spout any bucket can be hung, so the wood covers described 
further on can be used. It does not close the pores of the last year's 
growth of sap wood ; yet if properly driven it never leaks. When 
the spout is removed, however, the hole must be plugged, as if not 



73 



the sap will start more or less and become sour on the bark ; and 
this acidit}' will kill a large place upon the tree. Many have con- 
demned this spout in consequence of careless use and not plugging. 
If a man will not plug he should let the spout remain in the tree until 
the leaves just start, and then remove it and the tree will not be in- 
jured. But allowing it to remain until the further growth of the 
tree, the injury is frequently increased. 




Post's Spouts. 



BUCKET. 

I like tin buckets. To make good sugar they must be covered. 
There is a patent bucket with cover made by C. C. Post of Burling- 
ton which is perhaps the best arrangement, if one is to be newly setup. 




Post's Patent Bucket, 



74 

Persons who have their sugar-places all fitted need not despair, 
however, for I have seen in use a square piece of hoard cut just 
large enough to cover the bucket, and one side painted white and one 
side brown, laid just on the top of the bucket, the brown side up. 
Then as the sap was gathered it was turned over, white side up, 
and saved thus many a step, as whether or not the tree had been vis- 
ited was shown at a glance. The next gathering it was returned as 
before. * 



In boiling it is conceded by most, and has been found true in my 
experiments, that the sugar is the lightest colored and best flavored 
when reduced in the quickest possible manner from the tree to sugar. 
If boiled in pans, in the ordinary wa}', the sap should be no more 
than two inches deep in the bottom, and may be run to advantage 
even more shallow, but constant care is necessary. It will always be 
found that those who boil with their pans nearly full will have a dark 
colored, bad flavored sugar. The cost of boiling is also much greater. 
Last spring I experimented with the Champion evaporator, manufac- 
tured at Richford. I think it one of the fastest boiling evaporators 
in use. It was a No. 2, and with good wood I could run ninet}' gal- 
lons of sap per hour. With experience, perhaps, it might reach 100. 
So far as I am able to judge it is a splendid device, and I think it 
better be examined by many boiling in the old-fashioned pan, as it 
much reduces the cost of boiling. Very nice sugar can be made by 
its use. 




Champion Evaporator. 

The principle upon which it is constructed is not very difl*erent from 
others, but the utility of the heat is very great. Dry wood is needed 
to run it with the best success, with a strict adherence to directions in 
setting up. Many a man fails in the setting and use of pans, heat- 
ers and evaporators, b}^ trying what the mason or some one thinks a 
better way. I do not say that improvements cannot be made, but if 
so, they must be the result of long and careful experiment. 

CLEANLINESS. 

Cleanliness is doubtless everywhere next to Godliness, and no- 
where is it more apparent than in sugar making. The best sugar 
makers strain their sap once, and if buckets are not covered, twice. 



75 

Then skim all that rises to the surface, and man}^ strain the syrup 
also. The strainers used are generally white woolen flannel. 

FERTILIZING MAPLES. 

Like all other crops maples ma}' be fertilized. Potash or ashes I 
have found not onl}' increases the growth, but greatly increases the 
amount of sap flow, also the quantity and quality of the sugar. 
Gypsum (land plaster) also increases the sap flow, and all manures 
seem beneficial. Bone meal seems to increase the annual growth, 
but does not on my land have as beneficial effect upon the sap flow. 
I find the greatest benefit from fertilizing just as the leaves begin to 
fall in autumn. 

REFORESTING VTITH MAPLES. 

Man}- have done this in this state with great success. I believe 
the better wa}' is to plant the seed, or set the trees when very small. 
Some have set quite large trees, and cut back imtil they were hardly 
more than poles. This cutting back is never recovered from, and the 
trees are black-hearted, and do not run half as much sap as sound 
trees. Care should be taken not to transplant trees that require such 
heavy trimming. Maples can be profitabl}- tapped in fifteen to twen- • 
ty years from planting. One from seed seventeen years old in my 
grounds is sixteen inches in diameter. 

AMOUNT OF SAP FLOVT. 

In my experiments upon sap flow I have found the following to 
be shown : That about two feet from the ground is perhaps the 
best point for tapping, as the sap flow in relation to quantit}' 
and quality may be considered the most profitable at that point. 
The average flow decreases quite rapidly upward, as I have found, 
the usual length of the trunk, and to become much less and 3'et 
sweeter among the limbs. The average percentage of sugar va- 
ries greatly in difl!"erent trees and in different sugar-places, ranging 
as high as nine per cent in some cases, and as low as one per cent 
and even less at the other extreme. A tree tested for the season 
after potash fertilization averaged about seven per cent, and pro- 
duced twenty-four pounds of sugar. The highest product of any 
tree ever tested by me was forty-two pounds ; and the highest prod- 
uct of any sugar-place thirteen and one-fourth pounds in a season as 
an average from each tree. The average percentage of sugar from 
one of my best trees last spring was 5.14 per cent. There is a great 
difference in seasons, both as to the quantity and quality' of sap. 

experimentalists' NOTES. 

Experimentalists in this field are few. In Vermont I am not aware 
that any persons except myself and Timothy Wheeler, of Waterbury 
Center, have spent much time in such experiments. Mr. Wheeler 
has observed extensively though without instruments, which give 
absolute accuracy to positive experiment, but his observations .are of 
much worth, and I give such extracts in his own language from the 
various published articles in the newspapers as I deem of most inter- 



76 

est to the inquirer. As he is reliable in his observations, I believe 
these notes will be of use. 

"Cold nights with the thermometer below freezing, and warm days 
with an occasional storm of snow, or at least a snowy atmosphere, 
are necessar}' for the free flow of maple sap. 

•'Maple sap will run better by day than by night. The brighter, 
lighter, and more sunny the day, the more freely the sap flows. 

"As a rule trees are more or less active in the daytime, and rest 
more or less in the night. The darker the night the less sap runs, 
other conditions being the same. After three o'clock in the afternoon 
it will be noticed that as the sun declines the dripping sap lessens, 
even when there is no change of temperature. 

"Sap caught during the day is sweeter than that caught at night. 
The nearer the occurrence of a freeze or a snow storm that sap is 
caught, the sweeter it is. The sap season of the maple is while the 
tree is not in leaf, a period of some six months. As soon as the 
leaves fall, the first freeze and thaw intervening, the sap will run, 
provided the tree is properly tapped. 

"The first run of sap in the fall and the last in the spring has the 
smallest percentage of sugar in it. As the sap season advances toward 
the maximum flow, sometimes occurring in March and sometimes in 
April, sap increases in sweetness, and from this point it lessens until 
the close of the sap season. 

"Sap also increases in quantity until the maximum and then it de- 
creases. The sap first starts at the surface, and ends at the heart of 
the tree. The sweetest sap lies at the surface, while the poorest lies 
at the center, or near it. There is a grade of sap in each ring of 
every maple. These grades differ in color, taste and sweetness. 
Many do not credit this statement, but the most incredulous can be 
convinced by a few easily tried experiments. Sap grows sweeter and 
sweeter as we ascend the tree, from somewhere in the vicinity of from 
eight to twelve feet from the ground, but less in quantity. Quantity 
and quality do not go together. Sap is the sweetest in the sapwood, 
and it is the sweetest of all in the outside ring, or in the last year's 
growth. The sap decreases in sweetness but not in a regular grada- 
tion from circumference to center, and increases in color, so that the 
highest colored sap (on the same level from circumference to the 
heart), is the poorest in sugar, but in relation to altitude the highest 
sap is the highest colored, yet it is the sweetest. Sap will run earlier 
on the south side, but it will run later on the north side of the tree. 

" The less depth we bore a tree the less sap we get, but the whiter is 
the product. The deeper we bore the darker the sugar, but the 
greater the quantity. Trees standing beside moist, swampy land, 
and beside warm running surface water, will run much sap. Trees 
standing beside a cold spring will run much and very sweet sap. The 
better the sap season the better the sugar. The observing sugar- 
maker has noticed that as the sun declines and the dripping sap les- 
sens, the darker the evening the sooner the sap will stop. Many 
nights I have watched the maples to observe their habits when there 
was no freeze or lowering of temperature, and I find that sap will 
stop running before midnight, and commence again with sunrise in 



77 

the morning. Light, then, seems a powerful agent in sap flow. Heat 
and cold are still more powerful, however. Freezing nights, with 
warm days following, will give us sap until that run is exhausted. 
Then we must have a storm of snow or rain, and if accompanied by 
a freeze a smart run follows. Even a small change to a stormy at- 
mosphere and without a freeze, if it snows, will give a small run ; but 
the run will be in proportion to the severity of the change. The 
white maple will make nicer sugar than the rock maple, but not as 
much of it. A varied temperature is necessary for a full flow of sap. 
Good sap weather requires that the opposite ends of the maple should 
be afljected by opposite degrees of temperature. In ordinary years 
sap caught from tappings ten feet apart in the same tree, differs in 
color, taste and sweetness, so as to be easil}^ detected, but occasion- 
ally there is a year that the most careful testing will show but little 
difference. A stub, with the entire top broken off, will run sap free- 
ly, provided it was broken off the previous season. On an average 
it takes about sixteen quarts of sap to make one pound of sugar, 3'et 
I know of one tree which will make one pound of sugar from five 
quarts. Trees differ as much for sugar as cows differ for butter. 
Various trees will make all the way from no sugar at all up to thirty 
pounds and more per tree. 

"There is no such thing as "buddy sap," but the change in taste is 
caused by temperature. Sap caught at a low temperature is sweeter 
than that caught at a high temperature. Nice white sugar cannot be 
made from all maple trees. Some sugar-places in consequence will 
make darker sugar than others with the same care." 

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS. 

In 1885 the United States Agricultural Department collected all 
it could of a scientific nature upon this subject, and sent Prof. 
Wm. Frear, one of its chemists, with all necessary scientific instru- 
ments, to Lunenburgh, to investigate the sap flow and what it con- 
tained. The following report was made from the result of our ex- 
periments and what other information was at hand. It was published 
first in a pamphlet upon general sugar making by the Department 
of Agriculture. From it I make copious extracts with modifications, 
the result of later observations in some instances. These observa- 
tions are the outcome of careful experiment with all needed appara- 
tus at hand. 

The record of the chemical study of the maple saps, sugars, and 
sirups is very limited. 

Julius Schroeder* has reported numerous analysis of the Acerplata- 
noides. 

His experiments were conducted as follows : Before the beginning 
of the flow of the sap the tree selected for experiment was bored in 
twelve different places. The lowest hole was bored 0.30 meterf above 
ground. Each succeeding hole was made at a distance of 1 meter 
from the preceding. The height of the tree was twelve meters. The 
tree began to branch at the second tapping, and continued branching 

*Versuchstationen, Band XIV, 1871, p. 118 ei seq. 
fl meter is 39.37 inches. 



78 



regularly to the top. The estimation of the sugar from the various 
borings gave the following results : 



Date. 


No. 1 


No. 2 


No. 3' No. 4 


No. 5No. 6 


No. 7 


No. 8 


No. 9 


No.lO 


April 19 

20 


Per ct. 
2.51 
2.67 
2.70 
2.44 
2.00 
2.58 
2.73 
3.06 

(t) 

2.49 

2.46 

2.64 

2.64 

2.32 

2.29 

2.18 

1.88 

1.92 

1.76 

1.92 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct}Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


(*) 
3.10 

(t) 
2.99 
2.49 
3.03 
3.17 

ISr 






i 











21 


2.58 

(X) 

2.57 
2.58 
2.99 














•>9 














27 


2.62 
2.73 
3.42 


2.51 
2.57 












28 


2.97 










29 










30 














May 1 

3 


































4 


















5 


2.26 
2.88 
2.46 


(t) 


3.28 


2.79 


3.30 


2.88 








6 








7 


3.15 


3.39 


2.84 


3.25 


3.14 








8. 










9 


2.17 
1.41 
1.22 
1.15 


3.19 
3.21 
2.88 
2.40 


3.44 
3.17 
2.64 
2.16 


2.38 i 3.28 
2.76 1 3.39 

3.17 

(f) \ 2.73 


2.70 
3.17 








12 

13 


3.72 


3.30 


3.31 


14 


2.a3 

2.79 








16 




2.12 









*Beginuiug of the flow, but too little for analysis. 

tToo little for examination. 

^Analysis failed and no further substance at hand. 

From this it appears that from the higher borings a sap richer in 
sugar was obtained. In similar experiments made with the birch tree 
the opposite was found to be true, i. e., the sap from near the ground 
was richer in sugar than that from higher up. 

The author explains this difference by the different distribution of 
the starch in the two trees. 

In the birch little starch is found in the smaller twigs, while in the 
maple there is as much found in these as in the larger portions of the 
tree. He also found that during the flow of the sap the evolution of 
the maple buds was almost stopped, and hence there was no drain on 
the starch in the small twigs to support the growth of the buds. 

The influence of the season on the sugar content of the sap is 
shown in the following table, calculated from the mean of the flow 
from the lower half of the tree. 



Date. 


Sugar. 


Date. 


Sugar. 


April 28 


Per cent. 
2.74 
2.97 
3.06 
2.97 
2.91 
2.90 
3.02 


May 7 


Per cent. 
2.90 


2d 


8 


2.85 


30 


9 


2.77 


May 3 


12 


2.64 




13 


2.37 


5 


14 


2.05 


6 


16 


2.12 



Up to April 30 the percentage of sugar increased, on which day it 
reached its maximum. 

The decrease thereafter was very slow, so that it was first on the 
9th of May that the percentage of April 28 was reached. 



79 



From this time on the decrease in the content of sugar was regular. 
The sap from the roots showed a similar constitution to that of the 
branches i. e., it was richer in sugar than that from the trunk. 

Albuminoids contained in one liter of sap.* 



Height of tap above ground. 



0.3 meter 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 
3.3 



5.3 

0.25 

Root, 1 meter from trunk. . 

0.25 

Root, 1 meter from trunk . 



Date. 


Albumen 


Sugar. 




Grammes. 


Grammes. 


Apr. 27-28 


0.0205 


2.29 


29-30 


0.0186 


28.9 


May 3 


0.0238 


24.9 


5 


0.0117 


26.4 


7 


0.0152 


23.2 


16 


0.0079 


19.2 


7 


0.0251 


33.9 


7 


0.0344 


32.9 


Apr. 29 


0.0081 


14.9 


29 


0.0093 


19.3 


May 6-12 


0.0131 


12.6 


6-12 


0.0130 


18.6 



*1 liter is 1.05 quarts. 

The sap from the upper part of tree contained more albumen than 
that from the lower. Sap from the root in one case showed a higher, 
and in a second an equal content of albumen, as compared with trunk 
sap. Towards the end of the season the content of albumen grew less. 



Ash contained in one liter of maple sap taken at different distances from the ground. 


Date. 


Height. 


Ash. 


Apr. 27, 28 


0.30 
0.30 
0.30 
3.30 
5.30 


Grammes.* 
1.22 


May 5 


1.09 


18 


0.93 


5 


1.02 


5 


1.32 



*1 Gram is 15.43 grains. 

Ash contained in one liter of sap from trunk and root. 




Date. 


Ash, 


Trunk, .25 meter from ground 


May 5 
May 5 


P.ct. 
.63 


Root 1 meter from trunk 


.95 






Composition of ask from maple sap. 





Source 
of Sap. 




Parts in one liter. 






Date. 


K2O 


Na20 


MgO 


CaO 


Fe203 


P2OS 


April 27,28 


3 meters 
...do.... 


0.2708 
0.3529 
0.3009 
0.3321 
0.1345 
0.1661 
0.1857 


0.0096 
0.0040 
0.0073 
0.0321 
0.0182 
0.0056 
0.0138 


0.0584 
0.0660 
0.0524 
0.0673 
0.0921 
0.0304 
0.0281 


0.2404 
0.2262 
0.1462 
0.2142 
0.2655 
0.1798 
0.0644 


0.0050 
0.0012 
0.0097 
0.0112 
0.0267 
0.0019 
0.0025 


0.0968 
0046 


18 


..do 


0.0357 


5 

5 


3,3 

5,3 

Trunk.. 
Root . . . 


0.0415 
0973 


5 

5 


0.0354 
0.0474 



80 

MALIC ACID. 

Schroeder determined the malic acid as follows : 

The sap was partially evaporated, treated with an equal volume of 
alcohol of ninty-five per cent, and left standing for some time, when 
the at first amorphous precipitate began to take on a crystalline form. 
The separated cr3'stals were easily identified as raalate of lime. The 
analj^sis of the silver salt of the acid gave the following numbers : 



Constituents. 


Found. 


Calculated. 


c 


13.86 

1.33 

61.26 

22.55 


13.79 


H 


1.15 


A ff 


62.07 


o^ ; :: 


22.99 









ANALYSES OF MAPLE SAP. 
By Charles Wellington, B. S.* 



Variety of trees. 



Date, 1884. 



Acer saccliarinum Mar. 26, 28 

Acer rubrum Mar. 27, 28 

Do April 8 

Do April 8 

Acer Pennsylvanicum 'Mar. 30, 31 



Specific 

gravity at 

15° C. 



Sugar. 



1.015 
1.010 
1.010 
1.007 
1.010 



Glucose. 



Trace. 

0.012 
Trace. 

do 

do 



Sucrose. 



2.777 
1.458 
0.833 
0.769 
1.428 



♦Report Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, 1874-75, p. 290. 

GAS FROM SAP OF ACER SACCHARINUM.f 

Composition by volume. 



Constituents. 



N.. 
O... 
Co 2 



Gas from 
sap. 



Per cent. 

72.213 

22.435 

5.352 



Air. 



Per cent. 

79.02 

20.94 

0.04 



fReport Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, 1874-75, p. 291. 



ANALYSES OF MAPLE SAP IN INDIANA.* 

The orchard from which the specimens were taken is an old one 
which has been in use more than fifty years. It is situated two miles 
west of La Fayette. 

The first determinations were made on the 21st of March, after two 
days of a moderately hard freeze. 

♦Proceedings A. A. A. S., Saratoga meeting, vol. xxviii. 



81 

Specimens of sap were taken from twelve different trees, selected 
so as to represent in size, shape, age, &c., the average growth of the 
grove. 

Following are the percentages of sugar obtained. I also give speci- 
mens taken from the same trees four days later, March 25, after two 
davs and nights constant running. 



Nos. 


Per cent. 
March 21. 


Per cent. 
March 25. 


Nos. 


Per cent. 
March 21. 


Per cent. 
March 25. 


1 


3.95 
2.95 
3.26 
2.70 
2.70 
3.20 


3.44 
2.63 
2.80 
2.34 
2.60 
2.42 


7 


2.51 
1.95 
3.08 
2.67 
2.70 
3.51 


2 00 


2 


8 


1 87 


3 


9 


2 00 


4 


10 


2 34 


5 


11 

12 


2.11 


6 


2.74 











The twelve trees above given had been " tapped " about a week 
before the examinations were made. 

Wishing to try some perfectly fresh trees, specimens of sap were 
taken, on March 25, from three fresh trees, which gave in the polar- 
iscope the following numbers : 

Nos. Per cent, sugar. 

1 ' 3.93 

2 3.75 

3. 2.42 

The sap from a tree in Southern Indiana, taken near the end of 
the season and sent by express to La Faj^ette, Ind., gave, on exam- 
ination three days after collection, sucrose 4:. 30 per cent. 

This tree was noted for the richness of its sap, and was known as 
the " sweet tree." 

The following analyses of maple sugars and sirups were made by 
this Bureau, previous to the beginning of the work in Vermont, during 
the season just passed :t 

Inasmuch as the maple sap is always evaporated in open pans, it 
is not strange that the sugars and sirups contain invert sugar. On the 
other hand, in many cases the percentage of invert sugar is surpris- 
ingly low. These cases indicate that in i^ure aqueous solutions of 
sugar, heat does not invert the sucrose as rapidly as if mineral salts 
and organic impurities were present. A study of the proportion of in- 
version due to heat and to other causes would be of interest. Sam- 
ples for anal3'ses were purchased in open market and directh' from 
retail manufacturers. Opportunity was thus afforded to compare the 
genuine with the commercial articles. 

The results of the analyses, presented in the following tables, show 
to be true what has long been suspected, namel}', that the commercial 
articles are largely adulterated. The commercial sirups are quite 
uniformly mixed with starch sugar, or glucose. No method of anal}'- 
sis, however, will detect a kind of adulteration which is probably com- 

fChemical News, vol. 51, No. 1.317, p. 88, ei seq. 



82 

mon, that of the addition of cane or beet sugar to the maple. All 
of these sugars are identical chemjcalh'. 

Of the sirups, Nos. fourteen to twenty, inclusive, are known to be 
genuine. Excluding from these No. fifteen, which had been made for 
more than a year and had undoubtedly undergone partial fermentation, 
it is seen that the sucrose varies from 39.22 per cent to 64.45 per cent. 
The invert sugar(glucose), on the other hand, varies from 0.21 per 
cent to 3.24 per cent. The percentage of water is, as an average, 
astonishingly large — over thirty per cent. 

Of the sugars Nos. fifteen to twenty, inclusive, are known to be 
genuine. In these the sucrose is quite constant, about eighty-four 
per cent, while the invert sugar varies between 0.80 and five per cent. 
The water is much higher, too, than one would expect. 

Some curious results are shown by the analyses. Notice, for in- 
stance, the difference in sirups Nos. 2 and 3, 4, 5. In case of No. 2 
the analysis clearly reveals a large addition of glucose. Nos. 3 and 
5 had only a trace of reducing sugar. This is also suspicious. It 
shows that the samples were made, probably, by adding to a sirupy 
solution of cane sugar enough dark maple sirup to give it color and 
flavor. It is difficult to suppose that a maple sap evaporated to a 
thick sirup in an open pan would contain only a t7-ace of reducing 
sugar. No. 4 is a genuine maple sirup. 

In Nos. 9 and 10 are also, found some interesting data. Both of 
these sirups are probably genuine, although differing so greatly in 
composition. If No. 10 is an adulterated sample the admixture is 
not glucose, but refining molasses. In glucose there are alwaj's dex- 
trine and maltose, which were not determined above. In No. 10, 
therefore, there can be no glucose, else it would partly appear in the 
undetermined column. On the other hand, the percentage of reduc- 
ing sugar is very high, indicating a possible addition of refining mo- 
lasses : but the low percentage of ash in this sample is an evidence 
of its purity. 

In No. 13 is found a sample from the butternut tree {Juglans 
cinerea). 

Unhappily there is no method of detecting the adulteration of ma- 
ple sugar with other sucroses. The temptation to this adulteration 
is great, because maple sugar commands nearly double the price of 
other sugars ; but neither chemistry nor optics will help to a decision 
in a question of such an adulteration. If enough of the real maple 
sugar is present to give the characteristic odor and flavor, the sample 
must pass. 

Lately in the United States a patent has been secured for manu- 
facturing the maple flavor. It is done by extracting hickory bark 
with water, and the separation and purification of the product. This 
extract added to glucose or cane sirups gives them an odor and flavor 
very like the maple. 



83 

MAPLE SIRUPS. 



Sucrose 

by 
double 
polariza- 
tion. 


Inver- 
tose. 


Water. 


Ash. 


50.49 


9.90 


32.39 


0.33 


22 94 


27.77 


25.06 


0.58 


63.57 


Trace-. 


31.52 


0.69 


57.94 
1B1.25 
32.07 


5.52 

Trace. - 

32.79 


29.14 
29 68 
19.(1 


0.44 
0.74 
1.00 


57.71 


13.24 


31. .34 


1.14 


61.41 


1.58 


28.72 


0.82 


63.78 


2.00 


26.69 


0.84 


49.46 


17.24 

17.57 
0.66 


33.98 

.33.66 
31.28 


0.38 

0.86 
0.74 


29.41 
64.26 


44.54 


16.00 

0.21 
17.54 


40.26 

35.21 
33 74 


0.79 

0..55 
0.95 


62.23 

42.09 


54.80 


3.24 


38.58 


1.03 


63.87 


1..39 


.32.11 


1 71 


64.45 
62.90 


1.39 
1.78 


31.67 
32.84 


0.76 
0.68 


39.22 


1.79 


36.72 


0.94 



Undeter- 
mined. 



Description and remarks. 



6.89 Thuber's Mountain sirup, quart bottles, 

bought in Washington, D. C. 
23.65 Vermont maple sirup (McClary^, quart bot- 

\ ties, bought in Washington, U. C. 
4.22 Vermont sirup kept in bulk, bought in Wash- 

I ington, D. C. 
6.96! Do. 

8.33 i Do. 

15.13 Western Reserve f Black Bros.), i gallon 

cans, bought in Washington, D. C. 
6.57 Western Reserve (B)ack Bros.), kept in bulk, 

bought in Washington, D. C. 
7.47 Hazen's Vermont sirup, quart bottles, bought 

i in Washington, D. C. 
6.69 Ohio sirup, from Mr. La Dow, Washington, 
1). C. 

lOhio sirup, kept in J gallon cans, bought in 

j Washington, U. C. 
18.501 Do. 

3.06 Hazen's Vermont sirup, in quart bottles, 
bought in Washington, D. C. 

iSirup iiiatle from butternut tree, from F. B- 

I Hough, New York. 
1.80j Maple sirup, from F. B. Hough, New York. 
5.68!Maple sirup, nmde in 1883, from JI. ,). Smith, 
Middletield, Mass. 
Maple sirup, made from last run of sap in 
1884, from M. ,J. Smiih, xM:<ldlelield, Mass. 
Maple sirup, made in middle of season 1884, 
from M. J. Smith, MiddleUeld, Mass. 
Do. 
Maple sirup, made early in season of 1884, 

from M. J. Smith. MiddleUeld, Mass. 
Maple sirup, made in 1883, from M. J. Smith, 
Middletield, Mass. 



2.35 



21.33 



MAPLE SUGARS. 



84.24 


6.33 


8.03 


0.31 


81.67 


9.26 


8.84 


0.97 


79.08 


6.02 


11.57 


O.lll 


71.80 


12.1!( 


9.73 


0.70 


86.27 


5.91 


6.77 


0.76 


86.02 


Trace.. 


8.63 


1.06 


80.22 


6.89 


8.U8 


1.30 


86.24 


4..54 


7.82 


0.41 


84.58 


1.11 


9.74 


0.96 


84.51 


3.22 


8.24 


1.26 


85.42 


0.87 


8.78 


0.67 


84.14 


6.57 


7.47 


0.49 


85.68 


0.43 


10.81 


1.21 


8,5.13 


2.23 


ti.83 


1.50 


84.72 


0.8U 


9.53 


1.21 


82..36 


2.10 


10.75 


1.25 


86.97 


i:69 


7.68 


1.06 


86.28 


2.10 


7.59 


1.27 


86.89 


2.08 


7.96 


l.OB 


82.07 


5.00 


9.26 


1.16 



1.09 



2.42 

5.58 
0.29 
3.79 
2.91 
0.99 
3.61 
2.77, 
4.26 
1.33 
1.87 
4.31 
4.54 

3.54 
2.60 
2.76 
2.01 

2.51 



In bulk, bought at Washington, D. C. 

Do. 

Do. 
In small cakes, bought at Washington, D. C. 

Do. 
In bulk, bought at Washington, D. C. 

Do. 

Do. . 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do- 
Do. 

Do. 
Sugar made earlv in season 1884, about March 
20, from M. J. Smith, Middlefleld, Mass. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Sugar made from last run of sap in April, 
Irom M. J. Smith, Middlefleld, Mass. 

Do. 



Analyses of sirups and sugars collected during 1885. 



84 

SIRUPS. 



Sucrose. 



10 



.54.90 
6.'>.19 

44.88 



Inver- Moist- 
tose. ! ure. 



62.19 


.45 


52.36 


1.15 


61.11 


1.98 


55.84 


3.56 


57.51 


6.06 


62.10 


.56 


61.30 


.61 



2.29 40.23 

.78 25.13 

8.27 39.17 

31.58 



Ash. 



Albumi- Undeter. 
noids. mined. 



.a54 

.598 

.504 

.573 

40.03! ..527 

1 
35.03 .516 

38.30 1 .647 

29.92' .842 

i t 

33.171 .617 

31. ,52 .442. 



.019 
.045 
.063 
.025 
.050 
.044 
.050 
.075 
.044 



2.737 



8.258 



Oescriptive remarks. 



Made by H. Day, Lunenburgh, Vt., 

April 9. 
Made by Hosea Thomas, Lunen- 
burgh, Vt., April 8. 
7.113 Made by Harrison Stowel), Lunen- 

Imrgh, Vt., April 9. 
5.18: Made bv V. E. Hartshorne, Lunen- 

I burgh, Vt., April 9. 
5.883 Made by Porte 1 Smith, Lunenburgh, 
Vt., April Hi. 
.720 Made by Fred. Luce, Lunenburgh, 
Vt., April -20 
1.603 Made bv Fred. Luce, Lunenburgh, 

Vt.. April 22; unaltered. 
5.593 Made b Wesley Stewart, Lunen- 

, burgh, Vt., April 23. 
3.509 Made by Chester Thomas, 1884; 
I preserved in cork bottles; very 
j light-colored. 
6.128 Made by Simon Perkins, Randolph, 
Portage County, Ohio, 1885. 



1 


83.02 
84.34 

84.00 

85.25 

76.83 

81.40 


231 

.78 

.44 

.56 


8.54 
12.48 

8.62 
14.65 

6.16 


.693 

.S42 

.602 




13.977 

5.498 

2.478 
6.13 
7.76S 
11.145 


'» 




3 
1 




5 


.755 
.735 









Made by Wesley Stewart, April 8. 

Boiled down in small pan without 
skimming. 

Matle by Ezra Pierce, Lunenburgh, 
Vt ; milk used to raise scum. 

Made by Hosea Thomas; from top 
of large can. 

Made by Hosea Thomas; from bot- 
tom of large can. 

Made by Chester Thomas; small 
molds; very light-colored. 



OBSERVATIONS MADE IN VERMONT. 

Arrangements were made with Dr. H. A. Cutting of Lunenburgh, 
Vt., b_y which a representative of this bureau was permitted to make 
some chemical studies of the maple sap during the present season, in 
connection with himself. The season was a very short one, and j^et 
a start was made. Prof. William Frear was Instructed to take charge 
of the Lunenburgh station, and to collect as much information as pos- 
sible concerning the maple sugar industry- He went to Lunenburgh 
on April 3, and remained until the close of the season, in the early 
part of May. 

Following is the report then made : 

SOURCES OF MAPLE SUGAR. 

The Rock, Hard or Sugar Maple (Acersaccharinum,JAnn.) is cor- 
rectly regarded as the prime source of maple sugar ; but while it is 
well known that in northern climates all species of maple yield sap 
containing more or less sugar, it is not generally supposed that any 
other species than the rock maple is extensively used as an available 
source in the actual manufacture. In Vermont favorable conditions 
exist for the growth of most species of maple found in the north- 



85 

eastern part of the United States ; several species in particular are 
very flourishing, and have been much used as sources of sugar in ad- 
dition to that afforded by the rock maple. To so great a degree has 
their use for this purpose grown that excellent authorities claim that 
at least 50 per cent of the trees tapped in Vermont are of other spe- 
cies than the rock maple. Without attempting to make any accurate 
estimate in this matter, it may safely be claimed that these species, 
as well as the rock maple, deserve attention in the stud^^ of maple 
sugar production. 

The Red (yet called White Maple), Silver, or Soft, or Scarlet Ma 
pie {A. rubrum, L.) though considered as a lowland tree, is found in 
Northern Vermont growing high on the hillsides among the rock ma- 
ples. This species ranks next in importance to the latter in relation 
to sugar production. 

In Essex county there are few groves which are composed exclu- 
sivel}' of rock maple. In a large proportion from one-third to one- 
half is of white, or soft maple, as it is more commonly called, and at 
least one grove is known which is entirely made up of this species. 

The trees are frequently very large, and the general conditions fa- 
vorable to the best production in the rock maple have a like effect 
upon this species. The sap, though genei'ally inferior to that of the 
rock maple in sweetness, is clear, and flows in good quantity. 

A peculiar purplish coloration of the sap is noticed for two or three 
days after tapping, but it is not generally sufficient to materially af- 
fect the manufactured product. A similar coloration of the bit used 
in tapping is noticeable, and may be attributed to the action of the 
fresh juice of the bark upon the iron.* It is claimed by many that 
the sap yields a whiter sugar than even that of the rock maple. 

The Black Maple, or Black Sugar Maple(A. sacchariyium, var 
nigrum, Torrey and Gray ; A. nigrum, Machaux), occurs under con- 
ditions favorable to rock maple with considerable frequencj', though 
greatly less abundant than the A. rubrum. Having so much in its 
appearance in common with the rock maple, it often passes unnoticed, 
and in consequence, maj^ be of more importance as a factor in pro- 
duction than it is now supposed to be. It attains proportions and 
heights similar to those of the rock maple, and in the quantity of sap 
yielded is not inferior. It is claimed b}' some that the flow ceases 
sooner than in the case of the rock maple, but this season's observa- 
tions fail to support the claim. The sap is clear, of good flavor, and 
in sugar content fully up to the average sap of the rock maple. 

The Swamp, or River Maple(A. dasycarpum), though of compara- 
tively infrequent occurrence among the mountains of Northern Ver- 
mont, is quite abundant in low swampy grounds in other sugar-pro- 
ducing localities. While it does not generall}'' attain any great size, 
it ma}^ under very favorable conditions reach a height of 70 or 80 
feet, and a diameter of 3 or 4 feet. It makes a pleasant flavored 

*Michaux notes the blue coloration yielded by the wood of the Red and 
White Maples when treated with a solution of sulphate of iron as a test to 
distinguish it from the Rock Maple, which strikes a greenish color. The bark 
is claimed to have considerable value as a dyeing material. — Emerson, Tree and 
Shrubs of Massachusetts, Vol. II, p. 562. 



86 

sirup or sugar, as light in color as that from any other sap. Its yield 
of sap compares favorably with that from other species in trees of 
similar size ; in clearness it surpasses all the other species, but it 
contains the least amount of sugar. Ii tastes slightly astringent at 
times, and, if, boiled in iron vessels, is said to turn black.* Evapor- 
ation out of contact with iron,' however, yields a light-colored sirup 
or sugar of ver3' pleasant flavor. 

The other species of maple which are found in Northern Vermont 
are comparatively rare, and attain too small proportions to be of any 
practical value as sugar producers. Dr. Franklin B. Hough, in a re- 
cent paper on the maple sugar industry! says that in Southwestern 
New Hampshire the red maple (called white maple by lumbermen) 
is tapped as ^ften as the true sugar maple, and that the sap is really 
about of like value ; that in the Western Reserve, Ohio, both red and 
white maples occur abundantly, and are used in manufacture, while 
in Logan County the black maple is the source from which large 
quanitities of sugar are made ; that the last-named species is used 
also in Arkansas, though the production there is slight. 

He also notes the use on the Pacific coast of the sap of the cabinet 
maple {Acer macrophylhwi) for making sugar and sirup. Mr. J. C. 
Brown, in the same report, p. 390, says that the sap of the vine 
maple {Acer circinatum) contains a large amount of sugar, and is 
frequently made into sirup. 

Ur. Hough and other authorities also note the frequent use in Mid- 
dle Western States of the sap of the ash-leaved maple, or box-elder 
{Negundo aceroides) , a species closelj' related to the maples. It is 
said to contain a good amount of sap, which averages 2.8 per cent 
of sugar, and to ^ield lighter-colored products than are produced 
from the sugar maple. 

I would also note that in the report of the Department of Agri- 
culture the Red Maple proper, always called "White Maple," here was 
accidentally named as A. dast/carpum instead as A. rubram which led 
to errors in other statements, all here corrected. 

(CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE FLOV7 OF SAP. 

It has been observed that the quantity and qualit^^ of sap vary 
with the situation of the trees, their age and size, the nature of the 
season and of the preceding season, the meteorological conditions, 
and the methods of tapping. The general conclusions resulting from 
the experience of sugar makers have been collated from as many 
sources as possible, and will be noted in their proper order. The fre- 
quency of direct contradiction in the testimony, however, opens up 
many questions of great interest relating to plant physiology and 
chemistry. 

THE SITUATION OF THE TREES. ^ 

Every sugar-maker is aware that the productiveness of a grove 
varies much with its position ; and there are a great many theories to 

* The bark is well known as a dyeing agent, and as a source of ink among 
the earlier farmers of New England. Bancroft, Philosophy of Permanent Colors, 
II, 'Z12 ; Emerson, Trees, Shrubs of Massachusetts, II, 555. 

t Report on Forestry, Department of Agriculture, 1884, p. 394 et seq. 



87 

account for the differences. The facts observed ma_y be most satis- 
factorily grouped under the following heads : 

Elevation. — It is generally accepted that trees on a high elevation 
will 3'ield sap which is sweetest, but not so great in quantity ; whether 
or not the sugar product is greater than in the case of lowland trees 
is disputed. In several instances coming under my observation 
groves situated on high rocky ledges have yielded a larger weight of 
sugar to the tree than those in neighboring groves at a lower elevation. 
It has also been observed that, other conditions being similar, trees 
in elevated positions begin to flow sooner than those in the valleys. 
This would probabl}' have a favorable influence upon the final yield. 

Direction of exposure. — Owing to causes similar to those affecting 
trees at varied elevations, the direction of exposure has much to do 
with the 3'ield of sap. The warmest and most protected groves flow 
earliest and with least interruption. The favorite sites are those with 
southern and eastern exposure. Those groves facing north and west 
are sometimes several weeks later than their neighbors on the opposite 
sides of the mountain. 

Thickness of growth. — Exposure to sunlight and a full development 
of the tree being advantageous, the thickness and character of the 
growth has, of course, ii marked effiect upon the yield. Where the 
trees are planted thickly, not only is the ability of the tree to store 
up the sugar-producing elements reduced, and its growth retarded, 
but also the shading of the trunk and roots from the rays of the sun 
lessens the flow of the sap, and delays the period at which it begins. 
On the other hand, the flow is often longer than in more exposed 
positions. Without exception, nevertheless, it is admitted that isolat- 
ed trees yield not only the earliest and most sap, but also the sweet- 
est. 

Further, it is regarded as particularly important that other kinds 
of trees should be removed from a grove ; especially such as spruce 
and hemlock, which shut out the rays of the sun, and whose falling 
needles are likely to injure the sap in the pails. A growth of these trees 
on the side most exposed to the wind will, however, frequently aflJbrd 
much protection, and cause an earlier sap flow. 

The number of trees which can most profitably be grown on an acre 
will vary much with the position of the grove. According to C. S. 
Sargent* 160 may be considered as a fair number for medium-sized 
trees in flourishing condition. 

Moisture. — It is generally admitted that trees in wet ground yield 
the most sap. There is much dispute, however, concerning the rela 
tive quantities of sugar produced, as it is noticeable in a great number 
of cases that sap when running most rapidly is not so sweet as when 
flowing at a much slower rate. 

The majority of makers adhere to the saying, " Tlie more sap the 
the more sugar; " and as far as exact observation has been made, 
this opinion seems in the main correct, but it certainly is subject to 
numerous exceptions. 

/Soil. — In addition to the warmth and moisture of the soil, other 
physical characters and its chemical constitution are regarded as influ- 

*Agricultiire of Massachusetts, 1874 — 75, p. 270, 



88 

encing the sugar production. A loose rich loam is desirable. A. M. 
Foster of Cabot, Vt.,* prefers slate or limestone land to granite. Dr. 
Cutting, sa3^s that he has found bj- experiment that the application of fer- 
tilizers increases the sugar product of the following season. As an in- 
stance of the effect of soil constituents upon the qualit}' of the sap, E. A. 
Fisk, of Waitsfleld, Vt.,t records a casein which some spent tanbark 
produced a decided coloration of the sap which disappeared onl}' on 
the removal of the tan. There is room for much interesting experi- 
ment on the effect of fertilization upon the yield and qualities of 
maple sap. 

SEASON. 

Effect of preceding seasons. — The flow of sap varies not onl^' with 
the season or period of flow, but also with the character of the pre- 
ceding seasons. T. Wheeler, of Waterbury Center, Vt., gives "an 
Indian rule" for determining the yield of sap in advance, which he 
had noticed several 3'ears without failure : "If the maple leaves ripen 
and turn yellow, and the buds perfect themselves so that the leaves 
fall off naturally without a frost, then there will be a good flow of 
sap the following spring ; but if there is a hard frost that kills the 
leaves and they fall off premature!}' before the bud is perfected, then 
we may look out for a poor yield of sap."| 

Emerson says : "A summer of plentiful rain and sunshine — that is, 
one which furnishes the tree with abundant nutriment, and is at the 
same time favorable to the elaboration of the saccharine matter and 
its deposition in the vessels of the wood of the tree — ought naturally 
to prepare a plentiful harvest of sugar for the subsequent spring. "§ 

An open winter is also favorable to the best yield. || The sap flows 
earlier and the time of flow is generally longer. The quantity of 
sap also is greater and the percentage of sugar considerably higher. 
The data at command seem to indicate an increase of all solid con- 
stituents as the result of the conditions accompan3-ing such a season. 

Tiine of flotv. — It has been found that sap will flow with more or 
less abundance during any of the months between October and May, 
and even in the last named month when the spring is especially late. 
The time is much more limited during which the flow is abundant and 
regular, and the sap yielded is in best condition. The date at which 
the trees are usually tapped varies considerably with the locality, as 
well as with the nature of the season. According to Dr. Hough, 
the season generally begins in Southeastern Indiana about the mid- 
dle of February. In Northern Vermont the season rarely begins as 
early as the middle of March, and sometimes not till the second 
week of April. The duration of the period of flow is quite variable, 
but as a rule it is shorter when it begins late. 

The total quantity and composition of the sap -for a season vary 



* Vermont Agricultural Report, 1874, p. 728. 

t /i>., 1874, p. 717. 

ilU., 1874, pp. 723, 724. 

^ Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts, Vol. II, p. 562. 

II In Southeastern Indiana and other localities of a similar climate the best 
sugar seasons follow the severest winters. But a "severe winter" +here 
would be called an "open winter" in Vermont. 



89 

with its earliness aiid duration, thougli there is a wide variation due 
to special conditions of weather, wliich affect the regularity of the 
flow. As a rule the earliest and longest seasons j'ield the greatest 
quantity both of sap »nd of sugar ; notwithstanding in a late season 
the maximum daily yield is frequently higher than in seasons of longer 
duration. 

During every season there is a marked periodic variation in the 
quantity and composition of the sap. T. Wheeler, of Vermont, 
writes that the sap increases in quantity, density, and sweetness up 
to a certain time, and then again graduall}^ decreases until the close 
of the season. The maxima of these difl'erent properities do not 
occur on the same date. Other writers confirm this observation 
more or less completely.* 

Toward the close of the season the sap generally becomes thick, 
amber-colored, and opaque, and loses its pleasant flavor. 

METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS. 

While there seems to be an invariable periodic change occurring in 
every season, there are also numerous daily and hourly- variations 
which are attributed to changes in the weather. General observa- 
tion has led to the following conclusions concerning the effect of par- 
ticular meteorological conditions : 

A wide r; nge of temperature for each day is most favorable. The 
sap seems to run onl}' when there is an alternation of thawing and 
freezing. A thawing night is always unfavorable, while a freezing 
day, of course tends to stop the flow. 

A westerly wind is favorable, but southerly and easterly- winds 
diminish or entirely stop the flow. Providing there is no great 
change in temperature, no variation has been noted on account of 
changes in the velocity of the wind. 

Clear skies are most favorable. At the approach of a storm the 
flow lessens or ceases. Very frequently, however, after a fall of rain 
or a light snow there is a great increase both of sap and of sugar 
produced, though the actual percentage of sugar in the sap may be 
slightly lower. A laj-er of snow and frozen ground over the roots of 
the trees is always favorable to the highest yield. 

While the above rules are of general application, striking devia- 
tions are of frequent occurrence, for which no adequate cause has yet 
been discovered. 

VARIATIONS IN TREE. 

As would be expected, trees of different age and growth produce 
sap in var3-ing quantities and of different composition. Many sugar- 
makers believe that the "first" or "old growth" trees yield a greater 
amount of sugar than the "second growth," and that the sap is better 
in flavor and color. Mr. Hosea Thomas, of Lunenburg, states that 
he has boiled sap from "first" and "second growth" trees alternately 
for several days, and in every instance obtained a lighter-colored 
sirup from the sap of the "first growth" than from the "second." 

* This is a point which should be studied by more numerous analyses. 
19 



90 ■ 

The size of the top is also known to be a potent factor in pro- 
duction. A tree with numerous spreading branches gives sap in 
greater quantity and of better qualit}' than a tree with a small, 
slender top. Some observers claim that this faptor is important only 
in the case of ''second growth" trees ; but their statements are b}' 
no means received without question. Whatever the fact in the 
case may be, it is readily' seen that a large spreading top is the 
means of bringing into play increased elaborative force, and an in- 
crease in the quantity and quality of the sap would naturally follow. 

The age, and consequent!}' the size, of the tree in general is also 
an important element. It is well known that the largest amounts of 
sap and the richest saps come only from large trees, and that when a 
small tree yields a large amount of sap and a very rich sap it may be 
regarded as exceptional. This applies, however, only to trees in 
flourishing condition. A young tree in active growth will, ftom 
readily understood causes, yield a greater quantit}- of sugar than a 
very large tree with little vitality. It has further been observed that 
quite small trees cease flowing more quickly than those of much 
greater size and are more sensitive to changes of weather. As a 
rule trees under twenty or twent3'-five years of age and under 8 or 
10 inches in diameter are rareh' tapped. This is not alwaj-s because 
of the injury which many suppose to follow tapping in the case of 
young trees, but because the yield is too small to pa}' for the atten- 
tion required. 

TAPPING. 

The last of the general conditions which affect the quantity and 
quality of the sap obtained from different trees is the method of 
tapping. 

The first diff'erence may be noted by varying the 'depth of the 
bore. President Clark, in his studies on sap-flow, states that the sap 
taken from the heart alone is much smaller in quantity, but that the 
flow is of much greater duration, than is the case with sap from the 
alburnum. 

T. Wheeler states, as the result of his experiments on this sub- 
ject, that while a deep bore yields more sap and more sugar, it is of 
a quality greatly inferior to that obtained from a shallower bore. 
Moreover, the deeper the bore the greater the injury to the tree. 

The size of the bit used in tapping is of importance, more in view 
of the injury produced by a larger wound than by reason of any va- 
riation produced in the quantity or quality of the sap. Practically 
as much sap flows when a | inch bit is used for tapping as when a 
1^ inch bit is used, while the wound is much more readily healed. 

The height at which boring is made also influences the product, 
both in quantity and quality, there being a very marked difference at 
intervals of only a few feet. The lower the tap is put in, the greater 
will be the yield of sap and sugar, though sometimes there is really 
a larger percentage of sugar in the sap from higher portions of the 
tree. 

The number of taps in a tree aflfects the yield in quantity, at least, 
though no changes in the quality have been recorded as a conse- 



91 

quence of an increased number of taps. It is considered of very 
questionable utility to tap small or medium-sized trees in more than 
one place, because of the injury resulting from the greater number 
of wounds. 

Trees tapped on the south and east sides yield sap earlier and in 
greater quantity than those tapped on the north and west sides. On 
the latter sides the flow continues later, and the sap is sometimes the 
sweetest, taking the average through the season ; but the greater flow 
of sap on the south and east sides produces a greater quantity of 
sugar in spite of its sUghtly smaller percentage. President Clark 
sa3^s that the south side yields twice as much as the north side ; this 
proportion is probably higher than can safely be claimed in all cases, 
but the ditference is always notable. 

The frequency of tapping is also regarded as a factor in produc- 
tion. It is commonlj' accepted that the sweetness of the sap in- 
creases in proportion to the frequency of tapping. 

EFFECT OF TAPPING ON TREES. 

There is much dispute as to the effect of tapping on trees. When 
the borings are deep of course the trunlv is weakened, and a large 
cavity is left which is not refilled by new growth. Generally the fresh 
wood caps over the holes in the course of one or two years, but it 
often happens that the wound is never fully healed. For this reason 
some makers claim that the large shallow cut made by the ax, in the 
old fashioned method of tapping, is less injurious than the small but 
deep hole made in boring. 

When trees are tapped too early, and intense cold weather sets in 
afterwards, the bark around the boring is sometimes loosened b}' the 
expansion due to the freezing of the moist layer just inside. This is 
ver^' injurious. It has ako been noted that if the spouts are removed 
teo early and the sap leaks down between the outer layers of bark, a 
large strip just below the boring will turn white and drop off, leaving 
a surface which is covered only with great slowness. Further, when 
nails are driven into the trees to hold the pails, a similar injury re- 
sults, as well as a frequent rotting of the wood about the nail-hole. 

Mr. Wheeler claims that tapping diminishes the elasticity of the 
wood, but no other observers note this as a fact. 

Notwithstanding these disadvantages, the fact that large trees 
have been tapped for fifty and one hundred years without being killed 
in the process, and that, when compared with trees of the same age 
not often tapped, the}' are found to elaborate sap in larger quantity 
and contain more nutritive material, points to the conclusion thaV, 
with care, the injury to fair-sized trees is immaterial. 

When used for lumber afterward, the few feet of the butt which 
show the marks of tapping are rejected, but mainly from fear of the 
nails which may be present. 

DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTS. 

The trees from which the samples were taken for experiment were 
selected to represent, as far as possible, the varied conditions by 



92 

which the quantity and composition of the sap are supposed to be in- 
fluenced. They are as follows : 

No. 1. Swamp maple, in low land, near a large brook, in thick 
woods but with a fair exposure on the south side. Height, 20 feet ; 
circumference, 7 inches. Tapped on the south side. 

No. 2. Swamp maple, near No. 1, but on a little higher and dr}- 
ground, with less exposure to the sun, and only about 2 feet from a 
large birch. Height, 40 feet ; circumference, 40 inches ; fair top. 
Tapped on east and west sides. 

No. .3. White maple, in an isolated position, in a dr}' and elevated 
pasture. Height 60 feet ; circumference, 96 inches ; with good 
branching top. Tapped on east and west sides. 

No. 4. White maple, at the foot of a sharp incline, and on some- 
what swampy ground, but in an isolated and moderately elevated 
position ; roots shaded b}' a high stone fence. Height, 50 feet ; cir- 
cumterence, 110 inches; large top. Tapped on north and south 
sides. 

No. 5. Black maple, in the pasture near No. 4, but in closer 
proximity to other trees. Height, 60 feet ; circumference, 66 inches ; 
good top. Tapped on the south side, at height of 1^ feet. 

No. 6. Black maple, about a rod distant from No. 5. Height, 55 
feet ; circumference, 53 inches ; fair top. Tapped on the north side, 
at height of 2 feet. 

No. 7. White maple, in the same pasture, but entirely isolated. 
Height, 20 feet ; circumference, 34 inches ; small top. Tapped on the 
south side. 

No. 8. Rock maple, set out in 1860. Stands on high ground and 
on the north side of a house in a lawn closel}' planted with well- 
grown trees, among them some spruce ; exposed to the sun at noon. 
Height, 55 feet ; circumference, 35 inches ; small top. Tapped in 
the south side. 

No. 9. Striped maple, Acer Pennsylvanicum, in same lawn ; much 
shaded. Height, fifteen feet ; circumference, seven and one-half 
inches ; small top. Tapped on the north side two feet from ground. 

No. 10. Rock maple, from a row of trees in a lane ; ground high ; 
good exposure to the sun. Height, fifty-five feet ; circumference, 
thirty-seven inches ; good top. Tapped on the north side. 

No. 11. Rock maple, in same lane ; shaded in the afternoon. 
Height, sixty feet ; circumference, forty-eight inches ; very good top. 
Tapped on the south side. 

No. 12. Rock maple, in lane : much shaded in the morning and 
early afternoon by a thick spruce. Height, fifty-five feet ; circum- 
ference, thirty-eight inches ; very good top, branching about fourteen 
feet height. Tapped on the west side in four places : ( 1 ) At two feet 
height, (2) at five feet, (3) at eight feet, (4) at eleven feet. 

No. 13. Rock maple, set out in 1869. Stands in lawn and is 
much shaded on the south and west sides. The top was cut off in 
1875, but a large limb sprang up vertically in its place. Height, 
twenty-five feet ; circumference, sixteen inches ; slender top. Tapped 
on the north side. 

No. 14. Rock maple, from seed planted in 1860. In lawn at the 



93 

northeastern corner of the house; much shaded. Height, forty-five 
feet ; circumference, forty inches ; medium top. Tapped on the south 
side. 

No. 15. White maple, in the lane. Height, forty feet; circum- 
ference, thirty-one inches ; medium top. Tapped on the south side. 

The above-mentioned trees were tapped on April 7, when the snow 
was two to two and one half feet deep. Later on in the season samples 
were taken from other trees previously tapped, which have the follow- 
ing characterstics : 

No. 16. Rock maple, in the lawn. The top is shaded most of the 
day by a thick spruce tree, but the trunk has full exposure to the sun. 
Height, lift}' feet ; circumference, thirty-seven inches ; fair top. Tap- 
ped on the southeast side. 

No. 17. Rock maple, in the lawn. Top quite full and not shad- 
ed ; trunk shaded b}- a small spruce. Height, fiftj- feet ; circumfer- 
ence, thirty-nine inches ; good top. Tapped on the southwest side. 

No. 18. Rock maple, in the lane. Full exposure in the morning, 
but shaded the rest of the day. Height, fifty feet; circumference 
forty inches ; very good top. Tapped on the east side. 

No. 19. Rock maple, " old growth," in Alvin Thomson's camp; 
situated in wet ground at the foot of the hill near a large brook. Height, 
eighty feet; circumference, 143 inches; good, gnarly top. Tapped on 
the north side at height of five feet. 

No. 20. Rock maple, " old growth," in same position. Height, 
eighty feet ; circumference, ninety-six inches ; spreading top. Tapped 
on the eastern and western sides at height of five feet. 

No. 21. Rock maple, in F. Luce's camp, situated in low, wet 
ground, shaded all day by thick spruce tops. Height, fifty feet ; cir- 
cumference, fifty-seven inches ; good top. Tapped on the western 
side. 

No. 22. Rock maple, near No. 21; with very large roots; much 
shaded. Height, sixt}' feet ; circumference, forty-six inches ; small 
top. Tapped on the western side. 

No. 23. White maple, in Luce's camp ; situated on dr^- ground on 
a hill top, in an isolated position. Height, sixty feet; circumference, 
119 inches ; large spreading top, branching out at the height of ten 
feet on the eastern, northern, and western sides. 

No. 24. Rock maple, in Luce's camp ; near a rivulet ; ground 
bogg}' ; trunk very gnarly ; near other large trees. Height, fift}' feet ; 
circumference sixty inches ; good top. Tapped on the south side at 
a height of five feet. 

No. 25. Black maple, on a dry knoll in Luce's camp ; sunny ex- 
posure. Height, thirty-five feet ; circumference, fifty-five inches ; 
large spreading top. Tapped on the north side at a height of two feet. 

The trees, with two exceptions, are " second growth." The soil is 
such as would result from the decomposition of granite and talco- 
schist, and is quite loam}'. The trees were tapped with a ^ inch bit 
to a depth of 1 finches, and unless otherwise specified at a height of 
three feet. i 

The spouts used were galvanized, and supported the tin pails. The 
sap was gathered from Nos. one to fifteen, inclusive, as frequently as 



94 

possible, weighed and sampled for analyses. Average samples were 
taken from the pails of Nos. sixteen to twenty-five, without determining 
the quantity of sap. There was a slight quantity of sap which was 
spoiled by the rain of the 8th instant, and is not included in the total 
flow ; but it would not appreciably alter the results. 

SEASON NOTES. 

The summer of 1884 was fair, but the winter season was long and 
cold. In the middle of March the temperature was down to — 30 o F., 
while the snow was several feet deep. 

Sap did not commence to flow until the beginning of the second 
week in April. In the warmer days which ensued the snow rapidi}"^ 
melted, but had not disappeared even in open fields as late as the 
17th. 

On the morning of the 8th there was a shower which added about 
170 grams of rainwater to each sample; later in the day heavier 
showers occurred, which almost stopped the flow, and made any at- 
tempt at estimation useless. The following day was freezing, and 
consequently the flow was not resumed until the 10th ; from which 
date it continued without cessation in most cases until the 23d. On 
the 21st there was a slight rain, and an inch or more of snow fell on 
the 26th, which caused a slight second flow, so slight that only in one 
case was enough sap gathered for analysis. 

During the period of flow the alternations in temperature were 
marked. According to observations made by the use of self-register- 
ing maximum and minimnm thermometers, the highest temperature 
was 81 *^ F„ occurring on the 23d ; the lowest, 2 ^ F., on the 9th. 
The greatest diflference between the daily maximum and minimum 
was 38 '^ F., and was found to occur on the 9th, 20th, and 24th ; the 
difference between the maximum of the 24th and the minimum of the 
26th was .58 '^ F. The smallest diflE'erence was 12 "^ F., occurring on 
the 28th. The mean daily difference from the 7th to the 28th, in- 
clusive, was 26.5 "^ F. 

The prevailing winds were northerly and easterly in the mornings 
and evenings, but frequently veered to the south at midday. There 
was not a really strong wind during the whole season. 

More than half of the time the sky was perfectly clear, and when 
there were clouds they were generally light cumuli, rarely covering 
more than .r> to .8 of the sky. 



95 



ANALYSES OF MAPLE SAPS, ETC., AT LUNENBURGH, VT. 

In table No. 1 are found the percentages of sucrose in the saps of 
fifteen trees, together with the quantity of sap given by each tree 
from April 7 to 29. 

Table I. — Percentages of sucrose and weights of sap. 





Number 1. 


Number 2. 


Number 3. 


Number 4. 


Number 5. 


Date. 


i 

u 
o 

s 

CO 


be* 


i 
i 
5 




2 

s 


id 

h 


i 
s 

5 


Ml* 
.f. 00 


i 

i 


S P4 

■53° 


April 7 


p. ct. 


Grams. 


p. ct. 
2.32 


Grams. 
1.448 


p. ct. 
5.a5 


Grams. 
4 5^3 


p. ct. 


Grams. 


p. ct.\Grams. 


s 






3.81 


3,813 


9.fi7 


3,798 


10 






( 


! 




11 






2.71 


3,629 


5.39 
5.17 
5.23 
5.06 
5.73 
4.78 


3,232 
16,287 


4.48 

4.17 


2,140] 4.03 
9,086 2.78 
9,5.54 4.26 
2,990i 4.36 
6,9U3| 4.18 
10,460 1 4.63 


1,176 


13 






2,267 


14 


2.92 


198 


"2.69 
2.90 


1,956 

1,885 


9,525 2.98 
8,179i 3.96 
8,.562 2.94 
7,895 1 3.12 


",353 


15 

16 


1,360 
2,494 
2,721 


17 






18 






3.32 
2.84 
3.03 
2.74 


1,417 

3,685 

666 

936 




20 


1.98 


340 


4.72 
5.3U 
5.59 
9.88 


17,647 4 'la 


13,302 "t Q' 


10,432 
3,387 
1,!)84 


21 

23 

24 


213 

1,602 

128 


4.84 
5.20 

"5.33 


2,380 
2,267 

1,374 


3.25 
3.38 

"3.66 
4.18 


25 










2,055 
141 


28 
































Total wt. of sap 
Average sucrose 


' '2.3J 


538 


' ' 2.72 


15,662 


"5.61 


77,863 


"3.66 


63,269 


"3.42 


34.861 





Number 6. 


Number 7. 


Number 8. 


Number 9. 


Number 10. 


Date. 


s 

2 

s 

CO 


So. 

beas 


m 

i 

9 
CO 






b 

s 

CO 




1 

CO 


^0 


6 

2 

u 

s 


3 ft 




p. ct. 


Grams. 


p. ct. 


Grams. P. ct. 


Grams. 


p. ct. 


Grams. 


p. ct. 


Grams . 


8 

10 


3.23 


1,729 


3.93 


439 


3.27 
3.55 


2,963 


"3.99 




4.30 

"4.,50 
4.10 
3.63 


382 


11 






6.41 
3.45 
3.44 
3.55 
3.39 


1 091 


.1 SQ P.<>A 


694 
3,331 
1,586 


13 

14 


3.16 
3.19 

2 90 
4.78 
3.89 


9,241 
1,871 
9,979 
l.lJOl 
3,019 



2,253 2.69 
963 3.09 
9351 3.02 

1,133 2.85 


11,709 
3,657 
2,991 
3,956 
2,467 
2,904 
4,138 


"85 


15 






16 




. ... 




17 




2.87 
2.93 
2 91 




.!« 17 


2,210 


18 


4.10 
3.15 
3.76 
3.98 


1.133 

3,231 

240 

212 






20 

21 


3.03 
2.91 
3.04 


9,979 
6,647 
3,288 


3.62 


212 


3.05 
3.66 
3.58 


4,818 

453 

1,077 


23 


2.71 


368 






24 








25 


3.20 


2,749 






.... 












28 














"3. is 




















Total wt. of sap. 
Average sucrose 


50,103 


"3.74 


11,630 


"*2'.98 


38,314 


' " '3.73 


297 


* '3.53 


14,551 



96 



Table i.— Percentage of sucrose and weights of sop— Continued. 



Date. 


Nun 

s 

1 

3 


iber 11. 

S a, 

■|- 
S 

Grams. 


Nun 

I 





iber 12. 

■33, 


Nun 

i 


u 


p 

rj. 


iber 13. 

S ft 

p 


Number 14. 

S jzi a 

P. ct. Grams. 
"2.67 '""' 539 


Number 15. 

2 J5 ft 

5 ^0 


April 7 

8 


P. ct. 

' 5.14 
5.47 
2.98 
4.75 
4.59 
4.37 
4.16 
3.90 
4.0S 
4.17 

"4.68 


p. ct. 


Grams. 


P Ct. 


Grams. 
S26 


P. ct. 
3.il 


Grams. 


10 

11 


866 
510 
213 
3,906 
1,361 
1,347 
1,744 
1,646 
1,885 
3,827 


2.03 

"4.26 
4.03 

t4.26 
4.15 
3.32 
3.18 

3.32 
4.35 
3.46 


2,538 


2.84 


679 


12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 


965 
3,430 

2,083 
1,374 
2,197 
2,126 


251 
4.85 
4.57 
3.18 
3.97 
4.13 


269 
510 

397 
567 
298 
553 


6.04 
6.17 
6.06 
3.46 

2.90 


539 
1,885 

454 
1,427 
1,899 


3.69 
3..58 
3.24 
3.17 
2.66 
2.91 


1,488 

2,807 

992 

964 

l,.36l 

510 


18 




20.. 

21 


4,390 
737 
950 


3.34 
3.63 
3.21 


1,063 
184 
170 


10.20 


227 


2.68 


2,027 


23 


3.68 


2,381 






24 






25 






















28 ... 
























"3.75 




















Total wt. of sap. 
Average sucrose 


16,475 


' 3.55 


20,790 


"3.69 


4,337 


4 36 


9,351 


"3. is 


10,828 



♦Analysis of sap from one tap only. 



t Analysis of sap from lower two taps. 



The specific gravity' of the saps taken by the hydrometer at 62 ® F. 
generally ranges between 1.010 and 1.020 ; where the percentage of 
sugar reached 5 or 6 per cent, the specific gravit}' would reach 1.025. 
The mean specific gravity is nearly 1.015. 

The variations in the content of sugar in the saps of each tree are 
greater than would have been expected. In most cases, however, it 
will be seen that a notable increase in the content of sugar is accom- 
panied by a decrease in the quantit}' of sap. 

The highest percentages of sucrose are found in tree No. 3, April 
24. viz, 9.88 percent., and in tree No. 14, April 20, viz, 10.20 per 
cent. In both these cases it will be noticed that the flow of sap was 
small, being 128 and 227 grams, respectively. 

The study of the sap from such a tree as No. 3 otters also the in- 
teresting suggestion that it may be quite possible to increase the per- 
centage of sugar in the sap of future maples by planting the seed of 
such trees as show the largest percentage of sucrose. There are 
large areas in all the Northern States unsuitable for tillage but well 
adapted to the growth of maple forests. If such forests are not 
planted too thick the ground will aflford good pasturage, while, after 
a quarter of a century, the trees will yield large quantities of sugar. 
In planting such forests it will be wise to take the seed from trees 
with the best pedigree. There is every reason to believe that a race 
of maples, yielding a large percentage of sugar, could be developed 
as easily as a race of cows, yielding large quantities of butter. 

Among the maples there may yet be a race of Jerseys. 

ALBUMINOIDS. 

To determine albuminoids 10 cubic centimeters of the sap were 



97 



evaporated to diyness, and burned with soda-lime, y^^ soda and 
acid were used for titration. 

The following are the results obtained : 

Per cent of albuminoids. 



Date. 



April 8 
II. 
13. 
14 
15, 
15. 
15, 
16 
23 



No. 3. 



12 m . 
3 p ra. 
6pm 



Mean 



.0069 
.0094 



.OOSl 



W. 



No. 4. 



.0138 

.(•319 .0144 

.0188 .0244 .0263 

.0269 .0112 .0300 



.0300 



.0I80: .0272 



No.S. 



No.]] 



.0119 

.0206 .0219 
.02191 .0225 
.0206 .0294 

.0275i 

.0044 .0200 
.02191 .0231 



.0469 ! 

.0202 ^^0242 



The albumen was also estimated in sap taken on the 1 7th, from 
the groves of Messrs. Stewart and Smith. In Mr. Stewart's grove 
of 700 trees the percentage was .0088 ; in Mr. Smith's grove of 1,500 
trees it was .0103. 



OTHER CONSTITUENTS. 

All the early saps were tested for starch, but in every case with 
negative results. 

All tests for reducing sugar in the early saps in the fresh state 
failed to reveal its presence. As the season advanced, however, it 
was present in increasing quantity. Eight determinations made in 
saps collected on the 23d give a mean of .256 per cent., but casting 
three especially tliick saps the average is cut down to .057 per cent. 

Most of the samples were titrated with -^^^y soda, to determine the 
amount of acid, which was calculated as malic acid. 

The maximum amount in a fresh juice rarely reached .005 per 
cent., and more fiequently fell to .0005 per cent. The clearest saps 
frequently contained the most acid. 

The mean of 25 determinations of solids gives a purit^'^ coefficient 
of 95.0 ; and the mean 22 ash determinations is .146 per cent. 

The thick viscous sap which occurs late in the season, or when a 
sap is allowed to stand for any length of time exposed to a warm 
atmosphere, gives a slight precipitate of gum upon the addition of 
an equal volume of strong alcohol, which' does not occur with the 
earlier saps. - 



98 





Analyses of saps taken from different sides of the tree. 










Tree So. 3. 


Tree No. 4. 


Date. 


East. 


West. 


North. 


South. 




Sucrose 


Weight 
of sap. 


Sucrose 


Weight 
of sap. 


Sucrose 


Weight 
of sap. 


Sucrose 


Weight 
of Eap. 




Per ct. 


Orams. 

z,977 


Per ct. 

5.80 


Grams. 
1,616 


Per ct. Grams. 


Per ct. 


Grams. 






3.23' 2,1.')5 
5.11 170 
3.87i 3,544 
3.031 2.665 


4.m 

4.43 
4.36 
2.96 
4.19 
2.94 
3.06 
4.20 
4.41 
4.67 


1,658 
1,970 


11 


6.23 

""h'.u 

4.88 
4.53 
4.69 
4.78 
5.30 
6.15 


2,1*69 
9,299 
5,585 
5,542 
5,t>97 
4,747 
9,355 
2,130 
1,035 
Dry. 


3.69 
5.40 
5.35 
5.44 
5.17 
4.92 
4.66 

""4.56 

9.88 


1,063 
6,988 
3,940 
2,637 
2,665 
2,948 
8 292 

"5,667 

128 


13 


5,542 


14 


6 889 


15 


3.07 


609 


2,381 




6,903 


17 


3.27 
4.65 
5.16 
5.46 
6.33 


6,406 
1,360 
1,530 
1,374 


7,044 


20 


5,896 


21 

23 ■ 


1,020 
737 


24 


Dry, 


Ofl 








of sap 
tof 6U- 


















Total weight 
Mean per cen 


4.93 


47,C19 


5,10 


30.884 


4,10 


23,229 


3.41 


40,040 











In tree No. 3 the west side seems to afford a slightly richer sap, 
but it will be seen that the flow was not so abundant as from the east 
side. In No. 4 the same is true of the north side. 

Analysis of saps taken from taps at different heights,— Tree ^o. 12. 



Date. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


Sucrose 


Sap. 


Sucrose 


Sap. 


Sucrose 


Sap. 


Sucrose 


Sap. 


Aprils 

11..-. 


Per ct 
2.95 
3.91 
3.54 
4.03 
4.16 
2.74 
2.77 
2.72 
4.05 
3.11 


Grams. 
780 
298 

1,120 
680 
312 
751 
822 

1,488 
524 
780 


Per ct. 
2.22 
5.17 
3.85 
4..57 
4.2U 
3.47 
3.43 
3.44 
5.08 
5.06 


Grams . 
496 
142 
893 
510 
439 
595 
1,304 
1,215 
213 
170 


Per ct. 
1.93 
5.21 

3.88 

""4.31 
3.82 


Grams. 
312 
156 
6.52 
397 
340 
454 


Per ct. 
1.22 

3.78 
5.08 

""3.96 
3.61 


Grams. 
950 
369 


13 

14 


765 
496 


15 

16 

17 

20 

21 

23 


283 
397 


3.77 


950 


.81 


737 










Total weight of sap — 
Mean per cent of sucrose 


" *3.23 


7,555 


""3.76 


5,977 


"3.29 


3,261 


* "2.96 


3,997 



From this it is seen that the sap from various parts of the trunk 
varies in composition, but not regularly in proportion to distance, 
above the ground. Thus in the above experiment the best sap was 
found at a distance of 5 feet above the ground, while the poorest was 
taken at a height of 11 feet. Further experiments will be necessary' 
to determine the influence of altitude of tap on the composition of 
the sap 



99 



Analyses of saps taken from the. same trees at different times of day. 





9 a. m. 


12 m. 




No. 8. 


No. 11. 


No. 8. 


No. 11. 


Date. 


Sucrose 


Weight 
of sap. 


.Sucrose 


Weight 
of sap. 


Sucrose 


Weight 
of sap . 


Sucrose 


Wei-ht 
of sap. 


April 15 


Perct. 


Grams. 


PercA 


Grams. 


Per ct. 

2.96 
2.62 
2.96 
2.86 
2.99 


Grams. 

l,(iS7 
1,.588 

794 
1,884 

595 


Per ct. 
4.40 

4.07 
2.97 
4.21 
4.18 


Grams. 
780 


](( 




, 






9.50 


17 


2.69 


:,i9i 


4.27 


808 


498 


Ig 


1,205 


20 










595 







1,191 










""4.^7 


808 


'""2'.88 


6,548 


4,028 


Mean per cent of sugar 


2.69 




4.06 








3. p. m. 


6 p. m. 




No. 8. 


No.. 11. 


No. 8. 


No. 11. 


Date. 


Sucrose 


Weight 
of sap. 


.Sucrose 


Weight 
of sap. 


Sucrose 


Weight 
of sap . 


Sucrose 


Weight 
of sap. 


April 15 

16 

17 


Per ct. 
3.10 
3.05 
3.18 
3.06 
3.27 


Grams. 

91.4 
1,503 

482 
1,020 

340 

4,309 


Per ct. 
4.31 
4.18 
4.40 
3 86 
4.27 

' " * i.ia 


Grams. 
411 
496 
340 
680 
369 

2,296 


Per ct. 
3.12 
2.93 


Grams. 
340 

865 


Per ct. 
4.38 
4.43 


Grams. 
1.56 
298 






20 












2.98 










l,i05 


'"'4.42 


454 


Mean per ct-nt of sugar 


3.07 





The above results are also negative. In tree No. 8 it appears 
that the maximinn richness of the sap was in the sample taken at 3 
p. m., while in No. 11 it was found in the sample taken at 6 p. m. 
In all the above cases, except those of April 20, 12 m., it must be 
I'emembered that the sample taken at any given time included the 
whole product of the tree from the time the immediately preceding 
sample was taken ; in the exceptional case, the sap taken was the 
product of the flow from 9 a. m, of that day. 

Total quantities of sap and sugar from each tree. 



Number. 



I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

.7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

Mean, omitting 1 and 9 



Weight of 


Mean 

per cent 

of sucrose. 


Weight of 


sap. 




Grams. 




Grams. 


538 


2.33 


12 51 


15,662 


2.72 


438.66 


77,863 


5.01 


3,939.75 


63,269 


3.66 


2,317.93 


34,168 


3.42 


1,169.22 


50,103 


3.15 


1,. 579.28 


11,630 


3.74 


434.33 


38,314 


2.98 


1,141.40 


297 


3.73 


11.06 


14,5.51 


3.53 


51,^.94 


16,475 


3.75 


617.05 


20,790 


3.55 


738.36 


4,337 


3.69 


160.22 


9,351 


4.36 


408.06 


10,825 


3.18 
3.75 


344.48 


28,257 


1,061..59 



100 

The average yield of sugar to the tree varies much in different 
seasons. It is usually stated as two to three pounds. Large trees 
have yielded, however, as high as forty pounds, and quite a number 
are known to have yielded twenty pounds in a single season. The 
usual quantity of sap required for a pound of sugar is sixteen quarts, 
but Mr. Wheeler mentions a tree which N'ields a pound for every 
five quarts. This year Mr. Porter Smith of Lunenburgh made 
about 3,000 pounds from 1,500 trees; Mr. Hosea Thomas, 1,000 
pounds from 500 trees, though in some seasons he makes twice that 
quantit}'. Mr. Chester Thomas made about three pounds to the 
tree, whereas he has made as much as five to six pounds, in very 
favorable seasons. The product this year would seem to be on the 
average two to two and a half pounds. 



AVERAGE YIELD FROM GROVES. 

In order to determine the average percentage of sugar from a large 
number of trees, samples were collected from the storage-tanks of 
different sugar-makers in town. 

No. 1. From camp of H. Day, who has 250 trees, largely old- 
growth rock maple, on a low, moist piece of ground. Sample taken 
on the 9th. 

No. 2. Taken on the same date, from the camp of V. E. Harts- 
horne, adjoining that of H. Day, and of similar character. Taps 
300 trees. 

No. 3. Taken on the same date, from the camp of Harrison 
Stowell, which lies high on a hillside, with eastern aspect, and is 
composed largel}' of second-growth trees, with a good proportion of 
white maple. Taps 500 trees. 

No. 4. From the camp of Wesley Stewart, which lies on a gentle 
slope with bogg}" ground, and contains mainly second-growth trees, 
and a good proportion of white maples. Taps 700 trees. Taken on 
the 17th. 

No. 5. Sample taken on the same date, from the camp of Porter 
Smith, which lies on the same side of the ridge with that of H. 
Stowell, and is similar in make-up. Taps 1,500 trees. 

No. 6. Taken on the 22d, from the camp of F. Luce, on a gentle 
slope with southern aspect. All good-sized second-growth, with 
man}^ white maples. 

Average yield of large number of trees. 



Sample number. 


Date. 


Number of 
trees. 


Per cent 
sucrose. 


1 


April 9.... 

9.... 

9.... 
17.... 
17.... 
22 ... 


250 
300 
500 
700 
1.500 
300 


3.37 


2 


3.71 


3 


2.93 


4 , 


3.85 


5 


3.07 


6 


2.39 




1 








3,350 


3.25 











101 



MANUFACTURING NOTES. 



The trees are tapped as soon as the sap will flow ; |-inch to f -inch 
bits are used, and borings made to the depth of 1 to 1^ inches, pre- 
ferabl}' near the ground and on the southern and eastern sides. 
Trees under 7 or 8 inches diameter are not tapped. Spouts of tin, 
galvanized iron, or seasoned wood, are driven in so as to be sup- 
ported by the bark. The metal spouts are best because they hold 
the pail on the depending hook, in the absence of which a nail must 
be used. Paintecf wooden pails are often used, but the tin pails are 
growing in favor, being lighter, more readily cleaned, and more 
durable. Covers for the sap-pails have been invented, but have 
not as yet come into general use. 

The sap is collected as frequently as possible, by hand or in a 
draw tub of tin or wood secureh' fastened to a sled. Before being 
placed in the storage-tank it must be freed from impurities by 
straining or settling. Draw-tubs and storage-tanks of tin are highly 
recommended. When the sap is dark colored, or thick, as at the 
end of the season, it should be kept separate, and can often be used 
for making vinegar. Sap must not be allowed to stand in storage- 
tanks longer than is absolutely necessary, and must not be kept in a 
warm place, since it spoils rapidl}'. 

Kettles are used onl}' by careless makers. The best use evapora- 
tors, or Russia iron pans, 5 x 2|- x -f^^ feet in dimension ; they are 
set on brick arches, which are 20 inches in depth, and made with an 
ash and air space below. A great many use the heater — a copper 
box with three or four large, or twenty or thirty small tubes passing 
through it, and with a funnel-shaped tin top provided with overflow 
tubes. The heaters are placed behind the pans, and the waste heat 
passing through the tubes is utilized. The sap always boils violently 
on each fresh addition, and overflows into the adjoining pan. The 
best makers are discarding the '^leater" because the violent ebullition 
prevents skimming immediately after the addition of cold sap. There 
is little change in specific gravity eflected in the heater. A few use 
evaporators, or pans so arranged that the sap flows in continuously 
at one end and comes out at the other as sirup. As the}- are more 
expensive and require more care than the pans, they are not very 
much used. 

The fuel used consists of soft-wood, trimmings of the grove, 
spruce, and hemlock brush, or saw-mill edgings. The usual quantity 
required is 1 to 1^ cords for each one hundred pounds of sugar. 

To produce a light colored sirup, quick boiling and thorough 
skimming are necessary'. A few use milk or white of egg for rais- 
ing the scum, but it is apt to diminish the clearness of the sirup ; 
the best makers add sap little by little, and skim immediatel}' after 
each addition, most of the impurities coming at once to the surface. 

The scum is generall}' of a very dark color, and sometimes con- 
tains as much as .37 percent, of albuminoids. 

When the sirup has reached the desired consistency it is run out 
of the pan and filtered, while hot, through flannel. 

If the product desired is sugar it should be made directl}' from the 
sap, for the sirup darkens and loses flavor on standing. Chester 



102 

Thomas, of Lunenburg, Vt., who has gained a wide reputation by 
his light-colored sirups and sugars, says that lie always runs the 
boiling sirup down into sugar as soon as it reaches a slight straw 
color, no matter how small the quantity. When the boiling is com- 
pleted the pan is removed and the sirup stirred while cooling to give 
a lighter color and a smoother grain to the sugar. Molded and 
stirred sugar requires more boiling, and consequentl}' more care to 
avoid scorching. 

The usual test for the completion of the boiling is the attainment 
of a given consistency, which varies with each maker, as the hy- 
drometer is rarely if ever used. Mr. Whitcomb, of Enosburg, Vt. , 
mentions the following temperatures as indicative of the degree of 
concentration for sugar and sirup : Sirup, 220 "^ to 222 '^ F. ; tub- 
sugar, 228 ° to 232 ° F. ; cake-sugar, 245 ® F. ; stirred sugar, 252 ® 
F. The thermometer is, however, not often used. 

A source of great annoyance to many sugar-makers is found in the 
so-called "sand" or "niter," which forms a non-conducting layer on 
the pans, deteriorates the appearance of the sirup by separating out, 
on standing, in dirty-looking flocks, and gives an unpleasant gritti- 
ness to the sugar. The deposition is said to occur only at a density 
of 28 ^ to 32 '^ of the saccharometer. If the coating is burned on 
the pan it is ver}' difficult to remove, hence the pans should be 
scraped clean ever}' day. While early anal3'ses seem to conflict as 
to the composition of this substance, all recent investigations prove 
it to be invariably an impure acid malate of lime. 

Its occurrence to a troubelsome extent is very variable, and no 
satisfactory explanation of its variation has 3'et been found. Most 
observers agree that it occurs in greatest quantity after an open 
winter, or in seasons when the sap is sweetest, and that groves on 
low mucky soil are more affected than those on high, dr^' land. 

In Northern Vermont the sirups are sent to market in large tin 
cans. The greatest demand is for tub-sugar, which is poured, while 
warm, into tin or wooden vessels of about 28 pounds capacity. 
Occasionally a little sugar is made into 4-pound, 2-pound, and ^- 
pound cakes, but there is little demand in the markets supplied bj' 
Essex County for sugar in this shape. 

Mr. Wheeler estimates that the cost of manufacture is between 6 
and 7 cents per pound. As good sugar in bulk brings 10 and 12 
cents per pound, and good sirup $1 and $1.25 per gallon, it would 
seem that the business is quite profitable, especially since it occurs at 
a time when little work can be done on the farm. 

PRESENT DEMAND. 

The demand from the market changes from year to j^ear. Ten 
years ago and earlier stirred sugars were in best demand ; then tubs 
and caked sugar ; now sugar in tin pails and air tight tin cans. 
What the next fashion will be no one can tell. It is best to put it 
up in such a way as to command the quickest sales and fullest 
prices. 



103 



FURTHER EXPERIMENTS. 



Believing there might be a difference in years as to the sweetness 
of sap some of the same trees were experimented upon as last year, 
but no special ditference was found. Those sweetest last year jdelded 
the largest per cent, of sugar this year. Those that showed a dif- 
ference in the per cent, on opposite sides, persisted in the same pe- 
culiarities this year, so we have no new developments to record. 

Further experiments upon tappings above each other in different 
parts of the states, show that in general the tappings upon the 
trunk are best in quantity and quality near the ground, but there are 
exceptions in relation to sweetness oftener than in amount. Further 
experiments seem to confirm the previous opinions that the sap is 
sweeter from the branches, but small in amount. We trust any pe- 
culiar conditions will be reported to us each year, that all light pos- 
sible may be thrown upon the subject. 



104 



EXPERIMENTAL FARM WORK. 



But a few years ago, much was expected from the experimental 
work on the plot system, from the various experimental farms and 
stations in the United States, and the Connecticut station and some 
others conducted many experiments of that kind. They were to 
their own advantage and to the advantage of those that assisted 
them in various parts of New England ; but when the results obtained 
were made use of by others, it was found that a new series of tests 
and plot experiments must be made by everj' farmer, to make the 
advantages gained, most useful to them. The reason was that soils 
so diflered in their composition and in their requirements, in conse- 
quence, to produce a good crop. It seemed it was for the experi- 
mental stations to promulgate the principles and for the farmers to 
work out the problems, or final results, upon their own farms, to reap 
the benefits. The state of North Carolina in their late action spoke 
the facts, and all should profit thereby. 

Their action was as follows : 

''Voted, that the board shall refrain from ordering any field tests 
to be made at the Station, for the following reasons : 

1st. These experiments are very expensive. 

2d. They need to be conducted through a* series of successive 
years to be worth anything. 

3d. Owing to the extreme diversity of soils in this State, most 
results obtained would only benefit those farmers who lived near the 
station or had soils of similar character to ours. 

As a means of education, these model farms and field experiments 
are useful, and as hints to others they are valuable, and yet their . 
worth is greatly overestimated when made at stations, and underes- 
timated when m.ade b}' the farmers themselves." 

This fully represents the facts, as such tests when made upon the 
farm are a sure highway to success, and we have found them val- 
uable much beyond their cost ; hence shall give you some of the re- 
sults of twenty years experiments, that all may reap the reward of 
such labor, if the}' will but act. The farmers must know their farms and 
their capabilities as much as the logmen must know the capabilities of 
their teams that haul their lumber. 

No guess work will be profitable, but the sure results from known 
causes. 

To illustrate this we will give some experimental work of ourselves 
and others, to mark the way whereby farmers can find the landmarks 
of success ; though we well understand the unbelieving traits of the 
mind of man, that are so obstinate that to change our habits of cul- 
tivating the soil, requires, not only facts in argument, but facts seen 
under their own hand and even then many will say, that they know 
there are great profits on a single acre thus managed, but ho man 



105 

could make such a profit on his whole farm ; as though a hundred acres 
of corn would decrease the price of the product, or could never find 
purchasers. 

In the improvement of land you also increase the actual value, as 
well as the profit from increased crops, hence it is a double advan- 
tage. 

Allow us to illustrate by a simple case in our experiments. We pur- 
chased eight acres of land said to be worn out and nearly worthless. 
Four acres we plowed and thought to restore it in the usual way, while 
four acres were made the subject of a top dressing experiment. One 
acre was, after being harrowed and seeded as it all was ; top-dressed 
in winter. Tlie product the ensuing year was two and a half tons. 
Next acre top-dressed in spring, with a product of one and one-half 
tons ; another acre top-dressed in June and eight hundred and sixty 
pounds the result. One acre not top-dressed and four hundred and 
ninety pounds of product. The cost of the fertilizer and the time 
spent were equal on each acre. Now, our neighbors saw this experi- 
ment and talked about the advantages of winter manuring, but we 
are not aware that but one or two have since practiced it ; though 
for four 3'ears this field spoke in eloquent language for the new de- 
parture. We learned in that a lesson of great value and have since 
adopted the new time ; v/e trul}- believe with great benefit. Anyway 
our crops are heavier than others produce around us, at a much 
less outlay. This was a result from a moderate supply of stable 
manure and ten bushels of ashes to the acre ; yet we have other land 
that the ashes will not benefit. But how are we to know ? We ascertain 
all by asking of the plant we cultivate, what is required ? When the 
question has been fully answered through the plot system we under- 
stand the requirements of the soil and then act upon the facts learned. 
We generally make the plots long and narrow with a space of unfer- 
tilized land between ; in size according to circumstances, but a certain 
fraction of an acre that the results may be easily ascertained. 

MANURE. 

Manure to the farmer is a precious thing. It either costs us money 
outright or else much labor, cattle-food, and care, in an abundant 
measure. For such a valuable and costly thing we should use every 
care in its bestowal and have the soil as far as possible adapted to 
its reception. 

It is easy to throw manure away, or to squander it upon ill-con- 
ditioned land and we believe the great want of Vermont farmers not 
so much, more manure, as the right and judicious use of what we 
have. 

Yet we must have it and before we start out with our experiments 
it will be well for us to consider from what sources our suppl}' is to 
come. We must have the food for the plant before we can have our 
crop. With that object in view let us look at the great waste of night- 
soil. 

"Waring," in his book for young farmers, remarks that "night- 
soil, or human excrement, is the best manure within reach of the 
farmer." And so evidence might be accumulated upon that point 

20 



106 

from every one who has ever carefull}' husbanded and properly applied 
this substance as a fertilizer. It has been estimated that the night- 
soil of England in the course of a single year is equivalent to 5,000,000 
tons of the best guano. Allowing an average of 500 pounds of 
solid and liquid excrements to each individual in the United States, 
and the population to be 50,000,000, we have 12,500,000 tons 
of this fertilizing substance ; and allowing guano to be twent}' times 
as valuable as the combined solid and liquid excrements, we 
should then have fertilizing matter equivalent to 625,000 tons of 
guano ; but the population of the United States being about twice as 
great as that of England, with the same proportionate estimate as 
for that country the value of our excrement would be equivalent to 
12,500,000 tons of the best guano ; even taking our moderate esti- 
mate, and we are full}'' satisfied that by its full return to the soil, a 
great advantage would be derived. 

In China the law forbids that any human excrement, or urine, 
should be thrown awa}' and reservoirs are constructed in every house 
where all is deposited, composted and deodorized, with the greatest 
care. Saj's Liebig : "If we admit that the liquid and solid excrements 
of man amount on an average to 547 pounds in a 3'ear, which con- 
tains 16.41 pounds of nitrogen, this is much more than is necessary 
to add to an acre of land in order to obtain with the assistance of 
the nitrogen derived from the atmosphere, the richest possible crop 
every year." Think of this, you men who have families consisting 
of six or eight persons ; fertilizing in the best possible manner as 
many acres, when in all probability, the same is at present but poorly 
applied, if employed at all. 

If the fact be so, is it not a proper subject for consideration? Let 
each farmer resolve, that in the future,as far as lies in his power, he 
will endeavor properly to save and economically use all the excrement 
of the famil}', both solid and fluid, and what wealth will be added to 
our small commonwealth. 

In an essay upon manures published in the Iowa Agricultural Re- 
port for 1882 is found this language; "The economic relations of 
night-soil, is one of the most important questions that demands the 
attention of the agriculturist, and not until its importance is fully 
appreciated, will the exhausted lands of the east regain their lost 
fertility, and the steady impoverishment of our western prairies cease." 
If the saving and use of human excrement is the wonderful alchemy 
by which the reputed deteriorated soils of New England are to be 
restored to their original fertility, much gratitude ought to be felt, and 
expressed too, towards those individuals who b}"^ experiment or other- 
wise have discovered its great value. 

But like any other thing of great value, it must be cared for and 
as the concentration is such, it must be diluted and then put on thin. 

Many condemn, on account of heedless application. But the dry 
earth method removes all trouble. 

W. H. Yeomans says : " Some years since we tried that method, 
by filling, at the commencement of winter, a barrel with coal dust, 
upon which urine was poured until the same was thoroughly saturated 
and frozen solid, when it was abandoned. In the spring the same 



107 

was used to plant corn, by putting about one pint in tlie hill, dropping 
tiie corn directly upon it. The result was that hardly a spire of corn 
made its appearance ; it had been as thoroughly killed as it would 
have been with the same amount of the best guano. The piece was 
planted over, however, by striking into the hill with a hoe, dropping 
in the corn, and again covering. This time the corn came up, grew 
vigorousl}', and maintained throughout the season the darkest and 
richest color of any corn we ever saw. This satisfied us as to the 
great value of urine as a fertilizer. The past season we tried chip- 
dirt, saturated in this manner, side by side with superphosphate, with 
ver}^ nearly equal applications in quantity and could discover no ap- 
preciable difference in the growth of the corn or in the general result. 
Of the two, that where the urine was used, as in the previous case, was 
of a deeper and richer color while growing. We have for several years 
used this material almost wholly in the garden, and sometimes upon 
vines in the field, and always with success. 

Now if these substances, as we believe has been proven, do possess 
such valuable fertilizing properties, and have in the past been gen- 
erall}^ discarded, and allowed to go to waste, is it not high time that 
an economical use be made of them, and so the alleged deterioration 
of our soils not only be arrested, but the same in a great measure be 
restored ? Is not this better than to make such excessive expenditures 
for manures and commercial fertilizers as are now made ? This is a 
subject of the greatest importance to the farmer, and should receive his 
careful consideration. 

A gentleman who has practiced this to some extent remarked in 
our hearing that in that way in the course of the year, he could make 
from fifteen to twenty barrels of fertilizer, that he had rather have, 
barrel for barrel, than superphosphate. 

Jonathan Lawrence stated at one of the meetings of our board of 
Agriculture, that the waste from the kitchen and the contents of the 
water-closet, if properly composted would be of greater value to our 
state than all the commercial fertilizers sold therein to farmers, thus 
saving at least one and one half million of dollars annually. 

HOW TO COMPOST IT. 

First a plenty of dry earth, or dry muck is needed and a compost- 
building, which all farmers should have. This building need be only 
a shed of sufficient size and may have a plank or hard earlh floor. In 
it should be stored dry earth, muck, agricultural salt, kainit, bone 
meal, land plaster, etc. A large box of dry earth should stand in 
the privy, in the same a convenient hand shovel ; beneath the privy 
should be a water tight vault, and all persons using it should sift into 
this vault a sufficient amount of dry earth to prevent all odor. 

If there is any odor remaining pulverized sulphate of iron (cop- 
peras) should be sprinkled in until it is entirely removed. Once a 
week the contents of this vault should be removed to the compost- 
shed and mixed with dry earth, or muck, until it is dry and fine, when 
it may be placed in a heap for use. A barrel of dry earth should be 
placed where it is convenient to empty the urine from the house upon 
it and as soon as such barrel is saturated it should be composted as 



108 

before stated. The refuse from the sink should also be carried in 
drain pipes to the compost-house, I'eceived in a vat there and com- 
posted as the other ; yet if the amount is too large it can often be 
utilized as well and more cheaply, by running the same out into the 
field and composting with muck at the end of the drain. In this 
wa}' if not so perfectly cared for, there is no disagreeable smell from 
it, as in the compost-shed, yet all such smells may be prevented by 
the use of salt, sulphate of iron, kainit, etc. Care must be taken 
with these composts that the}^ be not used too abundantly. As a 
rule they are as valuable barrel, for barrel, as superphosphate of lime. 

HEN MANURE. 

This is another valuable source of fertilizer and can be composted 
as before described, or the floor of the hen-house can be covered 
with a laj'er of muck, sand and earth, in which there is a sprinkling 
of bone meal, rather coarsely ground and the hens will compost it 
themselves very nicely. A barrel of this material for every five hens 
is about the right amount of compost. 

OUR STABLES. 

First, our stables should be kept sweet. Those odors are due, at 
least in part, to the escape of nitrogenous products of decomposition 
of the manure, and indicate a partial loss of this valuable plant food. 
What is much needed is a disinfectant that will prevent this loss, that 
may, if possible, add valuable fertilizing salts to the manure, and that 
shall be reasonable in cost and easy of application. None of the 
ordinary disinfectants answer all the requii'ements. Carbolic acid is 
little more than a deodorizer. Chloride of lime is powerful, but the 
chlorine gas is disagreeable, and if too strong is unhealth}'. Sul- 
phate of iron is very soluble and a good disinfectant, but the ma- 
nure does not require so much iron. These three are the most 
common, but they are expensive and add little to the fertilizing value 
of the manure. They have not, therefore, been adopted to any great 
extent for stable disinfection. Plaster is cheap, but being verj' in- 
soluble it is not an efl3cient disinfectant. Lime aids in the decompo- 
sition of animal and vegetable matters ; it also purifies, but has no 
power to bold the ammonia, which is therefore lost as fast as gen- 
erated. 

The German kainit seems to meet all the requirements mentioned. 
It contains about 22 per cent, of sulphate of potash, with sulphate of 
magnesia, chloride of soda and chloride of magnesia. It is soluble 
in less than thrice its weight of water, and therefore easily put into 
the most effective form for use. Besides adding potash to the soil, 
the sulphuric acid of its sulphate of magnesia, like the sulphuric acid 
of the sulphate of lime in plaster, appears from the experiments of 
Birner & Brimmer to unite with the ammonia, as itis formed by the 
decomposition of the manure, to make the non-volatile sulphate ; but 
more than that the kainit appears to have another valuable quality of 
holding the ammonia in the manure. Prof. L. H. Armstrong and 
others say, of gathering it, also, from the atmosphere. To show the 
action of kainit and other substances on manure, and the possibility 



109 

of its gathering ammonia, I will briefly summarize the valuable exper- 
iments of the gentlemen above named on horse and cow dung. Por- 
tions of this mixture were subjected for a year to the action of lime, 
plaster, sulphate of magnesia and kainit. The results were that 1 
per cent, of lime caused a loss of 9.78 per cent, of the nitrogen of the 
dung. 1 per cent, of plaster resulted in a loss of only 0.34 per cent, 
of the nitrogen ; 1 per cent, of sulphate of magnesia saved all of the 
nitrogen that was in the dung and attracted an addition of 5.06 per 
cent, of the nitrogen already there ; lastly, 1 per cent, of kainit saved 
all of the nitrogen and added 7.97 percent, of its own amount to it. 
One pound of kaijiit per day scattered in the stalls is sufficient for each 
animal. Probably it would be more effective if dissolved and applied 
with a watering-pot, using a quart or less per day of a saturated solu- 
tion for each animal, in small sprinklings, as occasion required. The 
cost of kainit in the city will be $10 or less per ton — half a cent a 
pound, with freight added to where you reside. It will nowhere cost 
more than one cent, which will be a trifling cost per day for each animal. 
If farmers would use kainit freely in cow and horse stables, muck and 
compost heaps, pig-pens and chicken-houses, privy, sinks and cess- 
pools, by its purifving powers in these appurtenances, almost always 
too near the dwelling, they would greatly' promote comfort and lessen 
the mortalit}' in their families, which is now up to the full average des- 
pite their country life. It will be proper to remark that when kainit is 
used in manure and composts, thus fixing and increasing the nitrogen 
and enriching them with potash, etc., and in no way correspondingly 
increasing the phosphoric acid, it would be wise for the farmer to add 
a proportionate quantity of some material containing that indispen- 
sable ingredient, in order to make the manure a complete and well- 
balanced fertilizer, for though it may be rich in nitrogen and potash, 
a deficiency of phosphoric acid will in the end be equivalent to a de- 
ficiency of the other two great elements. Bone meal mixed in the 
manure and compost heaps will decompose evenly with the other mat- 
ters. If not so used superphosphate will be the material to apph' 
directly to the crops. We, however, believe a judicious use of bone 
meal and composting, will prevent the necessity on most land for a 
superphosphate. 

COMPOSTING STABLE MANURES. 

Years ago it was supposed that some crops could be raised only 
by the use of well rotted manui'e, but of late composted manures 
have taken its place largely and often to great advantage. Barn 
cellars were at one time supposed to be almost a necessity, but we 
believe the compost-shed and winter manuring should supplant 
them. At least no one will to-day doubt tl^at absorbents in the sta- 
ble 8ufl3cient to hold all the liquids, not only desirable, but almost 
indispensable. Often by the combination of different ingredients 
we get a less expensive and possibly better fertilizer, and with that 
intent, composting, has to many, become a valuable auxiliary in 
farm cultivation. We will therefore look into the subject to some 
extent and see if we can gain an idea of its worth from observation 



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and practice. As a starting point we will give jon an analysis made 
by Prof. Johnson of Connecticut, of three grades of manure. 

First. Fresh horse manure, where the horses were fed upon oats, 
corn meal and hay, probably cut hay mostly, the bedding litter 
going in as an absorbent. 

Second. From the stable where cows were fed on hay, with a daily 
allowance of four quarts of wheat bran, and four quarts of man- 
golds, no absorbent used. 

Third. Well rotted manure from yard where young cattle were 
kept, fed on hay. The manure, as usual, was heaped in the spring 
and rotted through the summei'. [See p. 310.] 

Now much depends upon the condition of the manure in the soil ; 
you will notice the greatly increased weight of No. 2. Now if this 
had been taken to a compost-shed (having first had an absorbent 
used in the the trench behind the cows, so that no urine could be 
lost), and then composted with muck having some potash and pos- 
sibly bone dust added, it would have become more valuable. 

First, on account of the pulverizing of the material. 

Secondly, by the value of the additions, and having first ascer- 
tained as we have before mentioned the needs of your farm by ex- 
periment, you are enabled to make just the provision you desire, as 
will be seen by and by. But we will consider composting further 
in regard to what wa wish to accomplish. Should we desire to 
keep all the fertilizing material in the manure intact for a given 
length of time, say one year, and not only have it equally available 
when used, but in addition gather more plant food for our crop, we 
could use crude kieserite, or instead 

LAND PLASTER ( SULPHATE OF LIME). 

This is not in itself plant food, but has remarkable powers as a 
deodorizer, also as a preservative to prevent manure from changing 
or heating. But plaster is not of use on all land, still by making 
repeated applications and carefully observing the effects, you can 
settle the question whether plaster is a good, indifferent, or bad fer- 
tilizer for your land. It may be good for you, and another farmer 
may find that it is of no use to him. There are statements made 
and recorded in all seriousness, that plaster is a damage to land. 
Only when we ascertain hoio plaster works can we reconcile these 
opposing and conflicting statements. We already know something 
about the mode of action of plaster, something that has been taught 
us by the chemist, who alone has the lever which will open this mys- 
tery. A French chemist. Monsieur Deherain, who made the earliest 
investigations on this subject, (Baron Liebig also studied the mat- 
ter about the same time), collected a number of soils, which' in 
practice were highly benefited by plaster, and a number of others 
which were not helped by its use. He put each of these soils in 
contact with water, to which he added, in each case, the same quan- 
tity of plaster, shook them well and frequently together, and allowed 
the water and plaster to act upon the soil. Then he took off a por 
tion of the water from each soil and analyzed it chemically. He 
found that in all cases the plaster had liberated some potash and 



112 

some magnesia from the soil, beyond what pure water could take 
up; but he found that those soils which were largely benefited 
by plaster were those in which this liberation was very consid- 
erable, while those not benefited by plaster in practice were those 
in which this solvent action of plaster was very slight. This 
is not all the action of plaster, but it is one of its effects. 
An essential part of agriculture is to liberate the potash in the soil, 
and make it available for our crops. Every crop must have potash. 
You cannot make an atom of starch in the potato, wheat, or any 
other plant, nor can you grow a plant of any kind whatever unless 
potash assists in that operation. This most important fact has been 
proved by some very delicate experiments made quite recently at 
one of the German agricultural experiment stations. We are now 
in a position to assert with confidence that we know that without 
potash we cannot accomplish the production of starch, wliich is the 
chief food element in our grains and vegetables. We know that 
plaster makes potash available to plants in many cases where it would 
otherwise be deficient. We know further that some soils do not 
contain potash in such a condition that plaster can liberate it for 
crops. But if our land does so contain it we are much benefited 
by such liberation, yet this is only one of the ways in which it may 
be available, bvit it is the one that aids us most. In case it aids us 
we should use plaster in our compost, as well as what else we find 
by experiment we need, as we shall instruct you further on, may be 
it will be bone meal and may be kainit. 

There is much difference in plaster, in quality and price as well. 
The kinds in use here are largely Nova Scotia and Onondaga. The 
price of the first will perhaps av(!rage $8.00 per ton to the con- 
sumer and of the last perhaps $5.50 or $6.00. 

We select from various analyses one of each from those of Prof. 
Goessman which may represent about the average of each kind. 

NOVA SCOTIA PLASTER (gYPSUM). 

Pounds 
per hundred. 

Calcium oxide 32.17 

Magnesium oxide 1.40 

Sulphuric acid 44.00 

Insoluble matter 70 

The sample contains 94.8 per cent, of gypsum, and is a fair 
article. 

ONONDAGA PLASTER (gYPSUM). 

Pounds 
per hundred. 

Calcium oxide 29.15 

Magnesium oxide 3.89 

Sulphuric acid 31.82 

Insoluble matter 9.25 

Its cost corresponds well with its percentage of gypsum, — 67 to 
69 per cent. 

Crude kieserite can often be used also, if obtained at fair prices. 
The analysis of a usual sample we give herewith. 



113 

CRUDE KIESERITE. 

Moisture at 100° C 28.12 

Magnesium oxide 17.45 

Calcium oxide 3. 13 

Sulphuric acid 36.87 

Insoluble matter 3.62 

The sample contained 48.6 per cent, of sulphate of magnesia, 
fiom 7 to 8 per cent, of gypsum . and 2.23 per cent, of chloride of 
magnesium ; it is consequently of fair quality. The kieserite, as an 
absorber of ammonia, may profitably be used in many instances as 
a substitute for gypsum. 

COMMON SALT (CHLORIDE OF SODIUM ). 

One important office of the salt is to make soluble, and conse- 
quently useful to the plant, the materials already locked up, as it 
were, in the soil. Supposing you have been putting on barn-yard 
manure and other fertilizers. Some of the nutritive material, as for 
instance potash and phosphoric acid, may perhaps have been taken 
up by the soil, and remain there in a difficultly soluble condition. 
Furthermore, there are in the soil some of these ingredients that 
were in the original rock of which the soil is made up, and are still 
so to say locked up, or in other words still remain in an insoluble 
form therein. One effect of salt, as is the case oftentimes with 
gypsum and lime, is to set loose that potash and phosphoric acid. 
You must expect, therefore, in putting on salt, that its chief use 
will be, not as direct nutriment to the plant, but rather as a means 
of setting other materials loose ; and salt is very useful on this 
account, because it is not readily absorbed in the upper layers, of 
the soil, but often leaches through into the lower layers, and it will 
have the effect of setting those materials free all the way down. 
The German farmers say, however, that you must be careful in the 
use of salt. If you put on too much, it injures the vegetation. 
Further, it will not do to put it on loose soil. A very loose, sandy 
soil, is not ordinarily, benefited by the application of salt. Again, it 
is best applied to soils which contain considerable humus. And 
salt on a soil of that character will help the crop. 

It is also almost a necessity on asparagus beds and may be put on 
until all weeds are killed, without danger to the asparagus. Muriate 
of potash is however said to be better than common salt, as the 
potash is plant food while the soda is not. 

From what we have said it will be seen that salt must be benefi- 
cial to almost all soils and should be more generally used. There 
is an impure article sold under the name of agricultural salt that 
is almost if not quite as good as any and may be had at low price. 
We believe nearly every farmer will derive great benefi.t from com- 
posting this with his manure. 

ANALYSIS OF AGRICULTURAL, OR REFUSE S.iLT. (CHLORIDE OF SODIUM). 

Moisture at 100° C 1.70 

Calcium oxide 1.21 

Magnesium oxide 41 

Sulphuric acid ., 1.57 

Sodium chloride 95.38 



114 

ASHES. 

All farmers should look well to the saving of the ashes from 
their stoves, arches and sugar places, for the potash and phosphoric 
acid are usually of great value to them, and if not they have a con- 
stantly increasing market value and may be exchanged for what 
will be beneficial. Ashes can be composted with manure if 
carefully done, yet many prefer to use them alone. It is not 
desirable to mix ashes with hen manure or acid phosphates, 
unless immediately before using, and perhaps it is better not 
to mix at all, but if stable manures are composted with 
muck they can be well mixed therein. If ashes are neededand 
a sufficient amount cannot be obtained, muriate of potash or 
kainit may be substituted to advantage, and either can be better 
used in the home manufacture of concentrated fertilizers than 
ashes. We give analyses of such as we think most beneficial, in all 
cases intending to give that of the usual quality. In some instances 
we give more than one, that you may see how different samples analyze. 

Analysis of four samples wood ashes, of fair quality. Nos. Ill 
and IV are better than an average. Nos. I and II are moist, and 
perhaps partially leached by exposure to weather. 

I. II. III. IV. 

Pounds per hundred. 

Moisture at 100° C 17.00 18.15 4.90 2.48 

Potassium oxide 4.28 4.80 7.42 6.53 

Calcium oxide 31.31 30.69 42.10 42.98 

Magnesium oxide 2.36 3.71 3.55 3.66 

Phosphoric acid 3.34 3.26 2.00 1.44 

Insoluble matter 15.50 17.35 7.12 4.87 



A-nalysis of three samples Canada, wood ashes, of good quality. 



LBS. 'PER. HUNDRED. 



Moisture at 100° C 16.55 

Calcium oxide 34.42 

Magnesium oxide 2.52 

Potassium oxide 5.36 

Phosphoric acid 2.06 

Insoluble matter I 24.10 



II. 



III. 



11.95 6.75 

39.601 34.71 

2 28' 2.45 

6.46 6.30 

1.77 2.21 

10.12 16.10 



115 

Analysis of four samples wood ashes, the two first leached as 
farmers usually do it for soap-makino", or as they may be leached 
by exposure to weather. 



Moisture at 100° C . 
Potassium oxide. . . 

Calcium oxide. 

Magnesium oxide. . 

Phosphoric acid 

Insoluble matter. . . 



LBS. PER HUNDRED. 



8.80 
2.18 
45.90 
3.63 
2.22 
8.86 



II. 

14.40 
. 2.25 
34.33 
3.13: 
1.79 
14.40 



III. 

12.93 
5.50 

33.99 
4.22 
2.05 

10.42 



IV. 

15.73 
5.03 

35.45 
3.41 
1.60 

10.29 



A-ualysis of three samples muriate of potash, collected from dif- 
ferent lots. 



Moisture at 100° C 

Potassium oxide 

Valuation per 2,000 lbs. 



LBS. PER HUNDRED. 



I. 


IL 


III. 


1.00 


0.05 


0.90 


51.94 


49.60 


50.80 


S44.15 


S42.16 


$43.18 



This form of potash compounds has proved to be one of the most 
reliable potash resources for field and garden. 



Moisture at 100° C 2.15 

Calcium oxide 82 

Magnesium oxide 11.30 

Potassium oxide ........ 16.48 

Sulphuric acid ;; 21. 91 

Valuation per 2,000 lbs §14.08 

This is a fair sample of its kind. Potash, in form of kainit, has 
been applied with much success for forage crops. It deserves a care- 
ful trial upon pastures and meadows, in connection with bone fer- 
tilizers. 



116 

KEUGIT. 

Moisture at 100° C 4.82 ' 

Sodium oxide 5.57 

Potassium oxide 8.42 

Calcium oxide 12.45 

Magnesium oxide- 8.79 

Sulphuric acid 31.94 

Chlorine 6.63 

Insoluble matter (in acids) 14.96 

This saline belongs to the products of the " German Potash In- 
dustry " at Strassfurt. It contains from 15 to 16 per cent, of sul- 
phate of potassa, besides sulphate of lime (gypsum), sulphate of 
magnesia (epsom salt), and chloride of sodium (common salt), etc. 
A careful trial of the article upon hill pastures, as a top-dressing, 
in connection with fine ground bones, deserves attention. It sold 
at $14 per ton of 2,000 pounds, on board of cars in Boston. 

COMPOSTING BY HOGS. 

Farmers sometimes neglect composting because they have to hire 
help at high prices to do the work. To farmers thus situated we 
would urge upon them the acceptance of labor from the hog. They 
are great workers if the material they are asked to work over con- 
tains now and then a nut or a little corn. Many times they will 
labor for hours with no apparent reason only the fun of the thing. 
If you have knolls of brakes in your pasture or fields, plow them 
off; take them to the hog-pen, with leaves or any other refuse, and 
the hogs will make all into valuable compost. Cart muck, or if you 
do not have it, the weeds from your fields and road wash, refuse straw, 
or any coarse material gathered where you dig out roots of noxious 
plants. They will make all into a valuable fertilizer. Be sure to 
keep in enough, all the time, to keep your pens dry and salt also 
mixed in, so d trodden down the mass will not heat and injure your 
hogs. The amount of gain by attention to this matter will more 
than pay for keeping the hogs, and what they are worth will be 
found a net profit ; or you may put it another way, and say that 
hogs for their pork will barely pay for their feed, their labor for 
you is clear gain. It seems to us that every farmer should utilize 
their labor in this way. 

OTHER FERTILIZING MATERIALS. 

We give an analysis as collected from reliable sources of average 
articles used, or that should be used by farmers in their experiments 
and if found valuable as fertilizers on their land may pay them 
very large profits on investments. It is our belief that no fertil- 
izers should be purchased until all the manurial products of our 
farms are fully utilized and then purchased to use in connection with 
such material in composting or otherwise. 



117 

LIME KILN ASHES. 
,» . . «^^^ ^ Percent. 

Moisture at 100° C 30.70 

Calcium oxide 37.55 

Magnesium oxide 3.68 

Potassium oxide 1.70 

Phosphoric acid 1.27 

Carbonic acid 17.83 

Insoluble matter 3.30 

Sold for 15 to 22 cents per bushel. 

The material is a fair sample of its kind. 

REFUSE LIME. 

Per cent. 

Moisture at 100° C 33.54 

Phosphoric acid 1.62 

Magnesium oxide 8.30 

Calcium oxide 40.57 

Insoluble matter 40 

This is the same value as common air-slaked lime. 
ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS USED IN SUPERPHOSPHATES. 

SOURCES OF NITROGEN. NITRATE OF SODA. 

Per cent. 

Moisture at 100° C 1.25 

Nitrogen 15.57 

Insoluble matter 0.45 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, $62.28. 

DRY GROUND FISH. 

Moisture at 100° C 10.38 

Total phosphoric acid 6.00 

Soluble phosphoric acid } „ on 

Reverted phosphoric acid f 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 3.18 

Nitrogen 6.13 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, .S36.53. 

FISH WASTE. 

Per cent 

Moisture at 100° C 41.92 " 

Total phosphoric acid 5.20 

Soluble phosphoric acid 83 

Reverted phosphoric acid 2.02 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 2.35 

Nitrogen 7.60 

Insoluble matter 28 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, S34.37. 

FISH POMACE. 

Per CGiit 

Moisture at 100° C 44.41 ' 

Total phosphoric acid 5'.85 

Soluble phosphoric acid 1.57 

Reverted phosphoric acid 0.62 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 3.62 

Nitrogen 5.27 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, S33.02. 



118 

FISH WASTE. 

Per cent. 

Moisture at 100° C 71.11 

Nitrogen 2.21 

Phosphoric acid ..... 0.60 

Fat 0.45 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, S4.58. 

The article consisted of coarse pieces of fish, and its valuation is 
based for that reason on the rates of cost adopted for coarse fish- 
scraps: Nine cents per pound for nitrogen and five cents per pound 
for phosphoric acid. 

GROUND HORN. 

Mosture at 100° C 10 00 

Organic and volatile matter 95.00 

Ash 5.00 

Phosphoric acid 1.36 

Nitrogen in organic matter 13.53 

Valuation per two thousand pounds. 

270.6 lbs. nitrogen at 10 cents S27.06 

27.2 lbs. phosphoric acid at 4^ cents 1.22 



$28.28 
The inferior mechanical condition of the article advises the low 
valuation of the nitrogen present. 

AMMONITE. 

Guaranteed composition : Ammonia, 15 to 16 percent, (equiva- 
lent to nitrogen, 12.4 to 13.2 per cent.); phosphoric acid, 4 to 6 per 
cent. 

Moisture at 100° C *5."88 * 

Total phosphoric acid 3.43 

Nitrogen (=ammonia, 13.76 per cent) - . . 11.33 

Insoluble matter 1.38 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, S45.90. 

The article consists, evidently, of fine ground animal matter, freed 
from fat. Its general physical character is apparently favorable to 
a speedy disintegration. The material deserves attention as a source 
of nitrogen for plant growth. 

SOURCES OF PHOSPHORIC ACID. 

FINE GROUND BLEACHED OR WEATHERED BONES. 

Lbs. per hundred. 

Moisture at 100° C 3.65 

Total phosphoric acid 26.37 

Reverted phosphoric acid . . 16.78 

Insoluble phosphoric acid . . 9.59 

Nitrogen 2.90 

Insoluble matter 2.65 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, S44.96. 

FINE GROUND RAW BONE. 

Per cent. 

Moisture at 100° C 4.63 

Total phosphoric acid 22.41 

Nitrogen 3.69 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, S43.86. 



119 

MEDIUM GROUND BONE. 

Per cent 

Moisture at 100° C 4.78 

Total phosphoric acid 29.83 

Reverted phosphoric acid 9.22 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 20. 61 

Nitrogen 2.03 

Insoluble matter 0.30 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, S34.79. 

BONEBLACK WASTE. 

Per cent. 

Moisture at 100° C 10.65 

Total phosphoric acid 29.64 

Insoluble matter 2.80 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, $23.71. 

This article is best used in the form of a superphosphate, com- 
monly called dissolved boneblack. 

GROUND SOUTH CAROLINA PHOSPHATE ROCK. 

Per cent. 

Moisture at 100° C 1.90 

Total phosphoric acid 27. 13 

Insoluble matter 11.90 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, lffl2 21. 

TWO SAMPLES BONEBLACK. 



Moisture at 100° C • . . . 

Phosphoric acid 

Ash 

Calcium 

Valuation per 2,000 lbs, 



Lbs . per hundred . 


I. 


II. 


1.55 


2.50 


30.54 


23.47 


80.85 


58.45 


45.73 




$27.49 


S21.12 



Boneblack refuse in a fine ground condition may be profitably 
used for composting. 

THREE SAMPLES DISSOLVED BONEBLACK. 
I. 

Moisture at 100° C loJS ' 

Total phosphoric acid 15.66 

Soluble phosphoric acid 12.76 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 2.90 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, $31.55. 



120 

II. 

Moisture at 100° C... 10.05' 

Total phosphoric acid 17.56 

Soluble phosphoric acid 10.84 

Keverted phosphoric acid 44 

Insoluble phosphoric acid .28 

Insoluble matter 1-08 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, S31.24. 

III. 

Per CGnt . 

Moisture at 100° C .....11.73 

Total phosphoric acid 17.34 

Soluble phosphoric acid .... 16.64 

Eeverted phosphoric acid 44 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 26 

Insoluble matter. • • • -11.98 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, $.30.86. 

PURE DISSOLVED RAW BONES. 

Psr C6nt 

Moisture at 100° C 10.23" 

Total phosphoric acid 16.03 

Soluble phosphoric acid 7.76 

Reverted phosphoric acid 3.83 

Insoluble phosphoric acid • • . 4.44 

Nitrogen 2.64 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, $40.67. 

I also give the manurial value of cotton seed meal, wheat bran 
and apple pomace. 

COTTON SEED MEAL (COAKSE). 

Moisture at 100° C 6.80 ' 

Organic and volatile matter 94.23 

Ash constituents 5.77 

Phosphoric acid 1.45 

Potassium oxide 89 

Calcium oxide 39 

Magnesium oxide . . .■ 99 

Nitrogen 6.10 

Insoluble matter 60 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, .$24.46. 

WHEAT BRAN, SAMPLES 1 AND 2. 

L II, 

Moisture at 100° C 11.4T"9.40 

Phosphoric acid 3.05 3.12 

Magnesium oxide 0.90 0.91 

Sodium oxide 0.09 0.16 

Potassium oxide 1.49 1.42 

Nitrogen 2.82 3.08 

Insoluble matter 0.11 0.15 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, $13.91 and $14.80. 



121 

APPLE POMACES. 

I. Rhode Island Gi'eening. 11. Baldwin Apple. 

I. II, 

Lbs. per hundred. 

Moisture at 100° C 78.220 82.780 

Dry matter 21.780 17.220 

Nitrogen 1.110 1.240 

Crude ash 1.090 1.780 

Potassium oxide 0.548 0.875 

Sodium oxide 0.151 0.121 

Calcium oxide 0.194 0.189 

Magnesium oxide 0.128 0.164 

Ferric oxide 0.039 0.049 

Phosphoric acid 0.081 0.107 

Insoluble matter 0.041 0.050 

Valuation per two thousand pounds, $4.34 and .$5.09. 

Apple pomace is usually a waste product, yet could it not be used 
to advantage as a fertilizer ? We see no reason why it should not 
be. It should be the chief aim of all to save and utilize waste 
products. 

We have now considered some of the available fertilizers of the 
farm aod also of commerce, as well as something of composting 
and thus rendering available by division, what as a compact body 
we could not so well utilize. Now let us consider the composts, or 

HOME-MADE FERTILIZERS. 

The constant demand for recipes for composts, and formulas for 
home-made fertilizers, is such that we publish a few that have been 
tried with success. 

There are countless formulas offered to our farmers. We have no 
intention of supplanting or deciding between them. Whatever our 
views as a people, whatever the views that agricultural chemists 
hold as to the benefit of chemical manures, no one will deny, that it 
is of the utmost importance in the economy of the farm, to utilize 
all fertilizing material which the farm can supply. To this end these 
directions have been prepared. By following them we can save 
money, and "a penny saved is a penny earned." 

In a state where ninety per cent, of the population burn wood, 
no one will deny that the ashes should be utilized. 

We need year by year to increase our home supply of fertilizers, 
in that laudable effort, let us use every means to prepare our own 
manures and save our money. 

FORMULA NO. 1. 

Raw ground bone contains both phosphoric acid and combined 
nitrogen, and when mixed with ashes the compound is a complete 
fertilizer. But raw ground bone contains a good deal of grease, 
which keeps out the water and prevents its decomposition in the 
soil. To cure this defect we mix the ground bone with the ashes 
(two or three barrels of ashes to one of bone) and pack the mixture 
firmly into barrels, making holes nearly to the bottom with a broom- 
stick or hoe handle, and pouring in enough water to soak the mixture 
without making it leach. This dissolves all the grease, and also 

21 



122 

"cuts" or softens the nitrogenous animal matter of the bone, so that 
it is all ready for the plants to use. All can see that this is more 
easily and safely made, and a more complete fertilizer than one 
made with bone and acid. If three barrels of ashes are used to one 
of bone, it is well to keep one until the rest of the ashes mixed with 
the bone have taken effect; (one, two or three weeks, according as 
you have time to wait, but the longer the better.) Before applying 
it to land, turn out the mixture in the barrels, and with a shovel 
mix the reserved dry ashes with it. This makes it better to handle, 
and easier to spread. Use this mixture just as you would a pur- 
chased fertilizer, but in double the quantity. 

FORMULA NO. 2. 

Two thousand pounds fine ground South Carolina phosphate. .. flS.OO 

Ten bushels unleached hardwood ashes 2.50 

One hundred pounds sulphate of ammonia 6.00 

Total !S;23.50 

Mix thoroughly, by shoveling over six or seven times on the barn 
floor. It should be so mixed, that when finished, every spoonful 
will be like every other spoonful. Better go over it too many 
times than too few. 

FORMULA NO. 3. 

Two thousand pounds fine ground South Carolina phosphate $15.00 

Ten bushels unleached hardwood ashes 2.50 

Three hundred and fifty pounds cotton-seed meal 5.25 

Total ' $22.75 

Fertilizers made upon the above formulas will be found as 
effective in every respect, used cost for cost, on all farm crops, as 
good stable manure, and quite as lasting. They should be sown 
broadcast. 

FORMULA NO. 4. 

First dissolved bone is manufactured as follows: 

Bone, fine ground 100 lbs. 

Sulphuric acid 76 

Water 40 

Bone for dryer enough to make up 225 

Of this dissolved bone is taken 800 

Raw bone 100 

Salt 100 

Humus, or muck dried 800 

Ashes 100 

Muriate of potash , 100 

Total 2,000 lbs. . 

Carefully and perfectly mix. 

This was used two years by one of our manufacturers of super- 
phosphates. His goods analyzed high and had a ready sale. Allow 
us to add that the muck used was a very superior article, the swamp 



34 


S5.78 


44 


3.52 


L62 


12.15 


28 


.84 


80 


3.60 



123 

having been used as a: grave yard for dead animals, for many years 
previous to its use as a muck bed, hence there was an advantage 
there over the use of ordinary nuick. When bone meal is dissolved 
in acid it must first be wet until the mixture is quite soft with 
water, then the acid added slowly. It will foam and boil, and as 
soon as that ceases, more bone meal must be added, enough to make 
the mixture in good condition to handle. This compost accordino- 
to Prof. Sabine analyzed as follows: 

Per cent No. oflbs. in ton Worth. 

Nitrogen 1.7 

Soluble phosphoric acid 2.2 

Reverted phosphoric acid 8. 1 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 1.4 

Potash 4.0 

Estimated value S25.89 

FORMULA NO. 5. 

Stable manure 800 ibs. 

Cotton seed meal 750 <' 

Dissolved bone black 450 " 

To prepare this spread under your compost shed the manure two 
inches deep, then dissolved bone same depth, to be followed by the 
cotton seed meal four inches thick. Wet down with urine from the 
stables, or chamber lye and soap-suds from the hoiise. Then repeat 
the layers and wet as before. After all has been put in, cover your 
heap with a layer of plaster ; dry muck will do. Fermentation will 
be complete in five or six weeks. Thoroughly mix and use two or 
three hundred pounds to the acre. This formula will do excellently 
for wheat, 300 to 400 pounds per acre. But when used on this crop, 
we prefer 50 pounds sulphate of potash dissolved in water and 
applied as directed in the wetting down. After a backward season 
100 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre, broadcast, in the spring, 
will help the crop very greatly. 

FORMULA NO. 6. 

Dry muck, peat or yard scrapings 600 lbs 

Cottonseed 600 " 

Acid phosphate 600 " 

Muriate of potash 100 "• 

Sulphate of ammonia 100 •' 

2,000 lbs. 
This formula should be composted in the same manner as No. 5: 
The muriate of potash and sulphate of ammonia being dissolved in 
water and used to wet the heap, may be applied in the same propor- 
tions. For wheat, and rye or oats (use 200 pounds per acre) it maybe 
harrowed in with the grain. 



124 

FORMULA NO. 7. 

Stable manure 500 lbs 

Unburnt marl 500 

Salt 200 

Dissolved bones ■ • ■ . . . 500 

Sulphate of Potash 150 

Sulphate of ammonia 150 

2,000 lbs 

This formula may be prepared by composting in layers^ as in 
No. 5, or mix the marl and salt together thoroughly, and apply the 
mixture as a covering to the compost of cotton seed meal, stable 
manure and dissolved bone, then sprinkle with the solution of sul- 
phate of ammonia, and turn the whole over once in two weeks till 
fermented. The same rules of application given previously, to be 
used. 

FORMULA NO. 8. 

Stable manure, mould, etc 1,000 lbs. 

Sulphate of potash 300 " 

" ammonia 100 " 

" magnesia 100 " 

Dissolved bone 400 " 

Land plaster 100 " 



2,000 lbs. 

Where chemicals are not to be obtained, good stable manure and 
a high grade commercial fertilizer in place of the sulphates and dis- 
solved bone, may be used, with a plentiful addition of hard-wood 
ashes or kainit. 

In regard to the amount to be used per acre; no general rule can 
be given — it should vary with the condition of the soil, from 200 to 
500 pounds per acre. 

FORMULA NO. 9. 

Bone meal, fine 200 lbs. 

Sulphuric acid 50 " 

Kainit 200 " 

Muck, or road dirt 400 " 

First divide the bone meal by sifting. Take the coarsest half 
and add four or live pails of water, until it mixes up quite soft 
then slowly add the acid stirring constantly. When through foam, 
ing add the other half of the bone meal and stir in, then 
add the fourteen hundred pounds dry muck or road dust, mix 
thoroughly ; while mixing add the kainit We have added the 
kainit by dissolving and sprinkling on the muck beforehand, and 
like that way well; though it may be added afterward by spiinkling 
from a saturated solution. The wet will do no damage. 

Use two hundred pounds to the acre, same as any commercial 
manure. 

Formulas for such preparations are endless in variety and worth, 
but any of them should be used only in connection with stable 
manui'es, as the profits in that way are greater than from their use 



125 

on worn-out land without any manure. If the land is in good 
heart they are ample for a maximum crop. Let us now consider the 

TIME OF APPLICATION OF THE FERTILIZERS. 

It is usual to apply in spring-time, and we supposed that the best, 
unttl by a series of experiments, extending over sixteen years, we 
became convinced that such was not the fact. 

After we became convinced of this truth, we sought for the reason. 
We believe that the plant food frofti our manurial elements, what- 
ever they may be, needs, first to be dissolved in water and thus 
distributed in the soil, that it may be available to the rootlets of 
the growing plant. After spring applications, there are many 
seasons that we do not get rain enough to do this work. If we 
apply in fall or winter, the melting snow and spring rains, prepare 
the ground by distributing the soluble plant food, for the incoming 
plant, which can then get an advantage from such food, without 
abundant supply of water. 

Those that do not favor such application, we would ask to try and 
see, if it was not better so to do. It is not probable that on a 
light soil it would be best and yet the danger from washing has 
been greatly overrated. It is so small that on our farm we have 
not yet found it, still we believe on some soil it must be worth look- 
ing after. Carry on a series of those experiments for yourselves, and 
the result will tell. 

MANNER OF APPLICATION. 

As we apply fertilizers in winter, it is evident there is but one way 
to use them, and that is broadcast, yet we believe at any season this 
is best There are, however, a multitude of machines in use for 
dropping in hills and drills that are better than broadcast machines. 
Such being the fact it will be a long time, before all will adopt the 
broadcast method, even if they believe it best. We have used in our 
experiments a little hand dropper of fertilizers, known as Randolph's 
and made at Liberty Comei', Somerset county, N. J., by P. F. Ran- 
dolph, himself. 

It is a wonder of perfection. Can be set to drop any given 
quantity per acre, and where horse machines are not used it is an 
advance. It does not leave it in a bunch, but as it should, properly 
scattered. We are sorry it is not on sale in Vermont, as we under- 
stand the whole outfit costs but four dollars. 

We would advise all hand droppers, to procure one, and after they 
become convinced of the great improvement through this machine, 
try broadcasting, which we believe the next advance step. 

MANURE AT THE SURFACE. 

It was a long and hard lesson for us to learn, that manure at the 
surface was worth many times more than when buried with the 
plow, but numerous experiments gained the day, as it will with all 
who till anything but sandy soil? and even there we find its 
advocates. 



126 

If there are any who till upland loam or clay soil who are not 
already converted, we trust they will at once institute experiments 
to convince themselves which is the correct way. The only way we 
can be certain of a fact, is to try and disprove it. A truth stands all 
tests, a falsehood soon vanishes, and leaves a fact in its place. Let 
all try for themselves. 

MANURE REQUIRED. 

Plot experiment tells us this. Many times a costly application is 
made to a large field withoutany return, and many times a crop is 
sown, cultivated, and harvested, which does not pay the expense of 
its production, when a few dollars worth of some fertilizer would 
have made it remunerative. One such failure often involves more 
present loss than the cost of conducting a series of these experi- 
ments, while the indications to be gathered from systematic inves- 
tigation of this sort, in respect to the future management of the 
land, would often make the difference between a losing and a paying 
husbandry. 

This method of employing the crops to reveal the resources of 
the soil and the action of manures, is capable of manifold applica- 
tion. By it the relative value of different forms of fertilizing 
elements, the most economical amount to use, the depth or 
mode of applying, and the best fertilizer for each crop, or the 
best point in a rotation at which to employ a given manure, 
can be studied. The only barrier to the use of such guiding ideas 
as we have thus briefly noticed, is want of faith in their practical 
value and efficacy. This want of faith will always result from lack 
of knowledge. To make these ideas bear full fruit we must appre- 
hend them in their details, and in all their bearings. This knowledge 
can only come from study, from a survey of the entire field of 
agricultural science, when we educate ourselves to the mastery of 
these ideas, zealously, as we now seek information with respect to 
new implements, new seeds, and new modes of culture, we shall 
handle them with ease and employ them with profit. 

METHOD OF EXPERIMENT. 

This method consists in observing the effects of each element of 
plant food, or of each available fertilizer, applied by itself to a plot 
of suitably prepared ground, upon a crop or a succession of crops. 
For many ordinary purposes plots of a small area — a square rod — are 
sufficient, if the soil is uniform in quality and depth over a consider- 
able stu'face, as shown by the uniform stand of the crops in former 
years. It is better, however, to have a long and narrow plot of ten 
or fifteen square rods area, because thus the inequalities of the soil 
are less likely to disturb the results. The ground being prepared 
for a crop, a number of measured plots or strips are laid off, and 
different fertilizing matters are applied to them in appropriate quan- 
tities. On one, for example, use gypsum, on another fresh-slaked 
lime, on another superphosphate made from bone ash or bone-black 
and oil of vitriol, but without nitrogen, on another pulverized "blood 
and meat scrap," rich in nitrogen, but nearly free from phosphates ; 



127 

on another sulphate of ammonia, on a sixth muriate of potash, on 
a seventh a nitrogenous superphosphate, or fish guano, on an eighth 
stable maniire, etc Two or three plots with no manure should in- 
tervene to furnish a basis for comparison. The experiments should 
extend over a series of three or four years, the same plots being each 
year treated with the same kinds and quantities of fertilizers, but 
cultivated with different crops. Such trials require, indeed, some 
outlay of labor, and some nicety in execution. The plots must be 
measured accurately, and their boundaries must be defined by suit- 
able stakes. They should be separated from each other by a vacant 
space of two or three feet, and great care must be used to distribute 
each fertilizer over t'^e plot to which it is assigned, and to confine 
it to those limits. Finally, to complete the trials the crops should 
be separately harvested and weighed. The trouble and expense 
of such experiments is trifling compared with the information which 
they, and they alone, can give the farmer regarding the needs of the 
soil and crop, and the effects of fertilizers. 

The method of experiment not only applies as to kind of fertilizer, 
but amount, and the farmer must pursue this course if he would 
reap rich success. 

You cannot get round it any better, than you can scale the battle- 
ments to heaven. There is a straight and narrow way and all who 
are crowned with success must walk therein. 



RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS. 

After what we have said we give you some of the results from our 
book of experiments, running through several years, the profits de- 
rived from the use of commercial fertilizers, so called, as ascertained 
by plot experiment. In all instances the soil was in good condition 
and without the fertilizers, bore a good crop. 

The fertilizers have been of various prices, but we select only such 
as had a uniform weight of 200 pounds to the acre applied, and 
only such as gave a profit, all cost of application, purchase money, 
and even interest on the same, has been deducted ; showing actual 
net gains, on well tilled lands, from their additional use. 

They were all used broadcast and all applied in the spring, yet in 
some instances some days before the seeds were put in. 

They show that while all first class fertilizers are good, that any 
man can from them select those that are best for his case. In these 
experiments there can be no guess, all must be weighed and the ut- 
most care given to the book keeping, that you may know the results, 
without any doubt resting with them. 



128 
CROP, POTATOES. 



1872 



1878 



1883 



1885 



Name of Superphosphate. 



Fale's Concentrated Fertilizer 

Bradley's Patent Superphosphate 

Paddock & Deun's Superphosphate 

Grat'toii Mineral Fertilizer 

Stevens' Mineral Fertilizer 

Ammoniated Green Mountain Soluble Phosphate. 

Brighton Bone Phosphate 

Cumberland Superphosphate 

Stockbridge Manure 

Land Plaster 

Fine Bone Meal 

Buffalo Bone Superphosphate 

Slack's Dissolved Bone 

Bowker's Stockbridge Manure 

Quinnipiac Superphosphate » . . 

Cumberland Superphosphate 

Common Sense Fertilizer, No. 2 

D 

Land Plaster 

Bone Meal, fine ground 

Americus 

Plaster : 



Quunipiac Sujjerphosphate 

South Carolina Phosphate Rock (Fine). 

Bone Meal, Fine 

Kainit 

Salt 

Lister's Dissolved Bone 



lis 



AMOUNT TO BE USED. 

This is another point on which we all need experiment, as the amount is 
even more important, than the kind, of superphosphates. 

We give in the following table the result of four series ot experiments, for 
amount ; showing very fully the neccessity for such careful investigation. 



O 3) 

~50~ 
100 
150 
200 
300 
400 
500 
50 
100 
200 
300 
400 
500 
100 
200 
300 
400 
500 
800 
200 



Name of Superphosphates. 



Buffalo Bone Superphosphate . 



Slack's Dissolved Bone. 



Quinnipiac Superphosphate . 



Cumberland Superphosphate, (Total loss) 



il9.14 
28.38 
44.48 
65.15 
48.90 
9.40 

20.02 
50.68 
64.09 
32.18 
9.21 

43.20 

55.80 

38.16 

4.36 



39.70' 



2.18 



.31 



4.92 
126.00 



129 

Prof. W. W. Cook in discoui'sing- of the results of the experiments 
with nitrogen said he believed that farmers did not need to pur- 
chase much or any nitrogen or ammonia, but that all neccessary 
could be secured from the air and from stable fertilizers, if all both 
liquid and solid were saved. He said such liquids should be saved 
by absorbents, and that all should be taken to the fields and spread 
before the Spring rains or at any convenient time in the Winter sea- 
son. He then gave the result of four years experiments with nitro- 
gen, at the rate of twenty-four pounds to the acre and also at the 
rate of fourty-eight and seventy-two pounds, showing a loss in all 
the experiments of about $1.00 on twenty-four pounds, about $7.00 
on forty eight pounds, and $15 on ^seventy two pounds, per acre. 
He then showed how injurious it was in combination, by an experi- 
ment, where 

Phosphoric Acid gave a net profit of $16.50 

Potash 7.84 

The two combined with Nitrogen, only 4.64 

He than spoke of commercial fertilizers, as sold, and gave results 
of eleven experiments, where the net profits per acre in one instance 
on potatoes was $84.60 and in another only $1.40, and yet the dif- 
ference in price of the fertilizers was very slight, — showing how it 
was neccessary to try experiments and see which was best for each 
individual to purchase. He then advocated the use of home made 
fertilizers, and said a judicious saving of all offal about house and 
barn was a necessity if the largest gain was desired. He advocated 
in all cases the keeping up of the soil, so that maximum crops be 
raised, and to do so a little plant food must be given each year. He 
advised the use of salt and of lime or plaster, if beneficial, but at 
the same time other fertilizers should be added ; a reliance upon these 
wholly would decrease fertility, yet their use was often beneficial and 
anything that was so should be used. In all instances the amount of 
anything put upon the soil should be first judicously ascertained by 
plot experiment. 

There was no other way ; the Yankee guess was here at fault. 

VALUE OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS. 

Commercial fertilizers, or concentrated manures, are manufactured 
for two reasons: One to supply demand, and the other to make 
money. When first sold in Vermont in 1870, I find the analysis of 
Bradley's Patent Superphosphate, as analyzed by Prof. Collier, to 
be as follows : 

Per ct. Lbs. per ton. Value 

Nitrogen 1.78 35.60 $6.05 

Soluble phosphoric acid 1.49 29.80 2.38 

Reverted phosphoric acid 4.50 90.00 6.75 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 6.89 137.80 4.13 



$19.31 
The valuation at the present standard would be $19.31, while you 
see the same goods sold in Vermont today show about double that 
value. Others sold at that time were worthless, as the mineral fer- 
tilizers. Analyses by Prof. Collier given. 



130 

GRAFTON MINERAL FERTILIZER. 

Per cent. 

Silica 39.87 

Carbonic acid 26.97 

Sulphur 25 

Lime 16.95 

Magnesia 9.52 

Oxide of iron 6.44 

Manganese, zinc, alumina, etc traces. 

100.00 

VALUATION. 

To the several constituents present in the above, agriculturists 
have never yet assigned any value, and of cou,rse there exists there- 
fore no basis upon which to fix a price. Very careful experiments 
are needed to show that as a fertilizer it is worth a dollar a ton. 

Stevens' ]\nNERAL fertilizer. 

Per cent. 

Silica 97.61 

Carbonic acid 94 

Lime 03 

Magnesia 04 

Iron oxide 1.38 



100.00 

VALUATION. 

The fertilizing value of the above is of the same character as that 
of the Grafton Mineral Fertilizer. Whatever may be its effect upon 
the plant, it seems in the highest degree improbable that either it, 
or the Grafton Mineral Fertilizer, are of any value as affording di- 
rect food to the growing plant. 

Bradley's goods at that time were doubtless as good as any on the 
market, and we trust the mineral fertilizers the worst ; but 
others were but little behind. Within a few years the improvement 
has been great, and we trust it will go on until we are as well served 
as in England and Germany. 

The above trade-values are the figures at which in March the res- 
pective ingredients could be bought at retail for cash, in our large 
markets, in the raw materials,vfh.iGh are the regular source of supply. 
They also correspond to the average wholesale prices for the six 
months ending March 1st, plus about twenty per cent, in case of 
goods for which we have wholesome quotations. The valuations ob- 
tained by use of the above figures will be found to agree fairly with 
the reasonable retail price at the large markets of standard raw 
materials such as : — 

Sulphate of Ammonia, Azotin, 

Nitrate of Soda, . Dry Ground Fish, 

Muriate of Potash, Cotton seed. 

Sulphate of Potash, Castor Pomace, 

Dried Blood, Bone, 

Plain Superphosphate, Ground So. Car. Rock. 
For wholesale price deduct about seventeen per cent. 



131 

PRICES OF WHAT FARMRES NEED PURCHASE. 
TRADE VALUES OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN RAW MATERIALS AND CHEMICALS. 



CENTS PER POUND. 



-1881. 



1882. 1883. 



188.5. 



1886. 



Nitrog-en in ammonia salts 

Nitrosen in nitrates 

Nitrogen in drieil and tine ground tisli 

Organic nitrogen in guano, and line ground 
" blood and meat 

Organic nitrogen in cotton seed, linseed meal, 
and in castor pomace 

Organic nitrogen in fine ground bone 

Organic nitrogen in medium line bone 

Organic nitrogen in medium bone 

Organic nitrogen in coarse medium bone 

Organic nitrogen in coarse bone, horn shav- 
ings, hair, and lish scraps 

Phosphoric acid, soluble in water 

Phosphoric acid, soluble in ammonia citrate* 

Phosphoric acid, insoluble in dry, fine ground 
titeh, and in fine bone 

Phosphoric acid, insoluble in fine medium 
bone 

Phosphoric acid, insoluble in medium bone.. 

Phosphoric acid, insoluble in coarse medium 
bone 

Phosphoric acid, insoluble in coarse bone — 

Phosphoric acid, insoluble in fine ground I'ock 
phosphate 

Potash as high grade sulphate 

Potash as kainit 

Potash as muriate 



22^ 

26 

20 

20 

16 
15 
14 
13 

12 

11 

12i 

9 



26 


22 


18 


20 


18 


IS 


23 


2.1 


18 


23 


18 


18 


18 


18 


18 


17 


18 


18 


1.5 


16 


16 


14 


14 


14 


13 


12 


12 


11 


10 


10 


11 


10 


9 


8 


9 


8 


6 


6 


6 


5i 


5J 


5i 


.5 


6 


5 


4i 


4i 


4J 


4 


4 


4 


2} 


n 


2 


7 


'4 


7^ 


H 


ii 


42 


*\ 


ik 


4* 



18i 
18* 
17 



17 
17 
15 
13 
11 

9 

8 
7i 

7 



♦Dissolved from two grams of phosphate, unground, by 100 c. c. neutral solution of 
ammonia citrate, sp. gr. l.OH in 3i) minutes at 4U deg. C, with agitation once in five min- 
utes; commonly called " reverted" or backgone phosphorie acid. 

TRADE VALUES IN SUPERPHOSPHATES, SPECIAL MANURES AND 
MIXED FERTILIZERS OF HIGH GRADES. 

The organic nitrogen in these classes of goods is reckoned at the 
highest figure laid down in the trade values of fertilizing ingredients 
in raw materials, namely, seventeen cents per pound, it being as- 
sumed that the organic nitrogen is derived from the best sources, 
viz : bone, blood, animal matter, or other equally good forms and 
not from leather, shoddy, hair or any low-priced inferior forms of 
vegetable matter, unless the contrary is ascertained. 

Insoluble phosphoric acid is reckoned at three cents, it being as- 
sumed, unless found otherwise, that it is from bone or similar source 
and not from rock phosphate. In this latter form the insoluble 
phosphoric acid is worth but two cents per pound. Potash is rated 
at 4J cents, if sufldcient cholorine is present in the fertilizer to com- 
bine with it to make muriate. If there is more potash present than 
will combine with the chlorine, then this excess of potash is reckoned 
as sulphate at 5^ cents. 

In most cases the valuation of the ingredients in superphosphates 
and specials falls below the retail price of these goods. The differ- 
ence between the two figures, represents the manufacturer's charges 
for converting raw materials into manufactured articles. These 
charges are for grinding and mixing, bagging or barreling, storage 



132 

and transportation, commission to agents and dealers, long credits, 
interest on investment, bad debts, and finally, profits. 

In 1885 the average selling price of ammoniated superphosphates 
and guanos was $37.60, the average valuation was $30.47, and the 
difference $7.23 — an advance of 23.4 per cent, on the valuation and 
on the wholesale cost of the fertilizing elements in the raw materials. 

In case of specials the average cost was $44.80, the average val 
uation $38.70, and the difference $6.10 or less than 16.0 per cent, 
advance on the valuation. 

To obtain the Valuation of a Fertilizer (i. e. the money- worth of 
its fertilizing ingredients), we multiply the pounds per ton of nit- 
rogen, etc., by the trade-value per pound. We thus get the values 
per ton of the several ingredients, and adding them together we ob- 
tain the total valuation per ton. 

The mechanical condition of any fertilizing material, simple or 
compound, derserves the most serious consideration of farmers, 
when articles of a similar chemical character are offered for their 
choice. The degree of pulverization controls, almost without ex- 
ception, under similar conditions, the rate of solubility, and the more 
or less rapid diffusion of the different articles of plant-food through- 
out the soil. The state of moisture exerts a no less important in- 
fluence on the pecuniary value, in case of one and the same kind of 
substance. 

Two samples of fish fertilizer, although equally pure, may differ 
from fifty to one hundred per cent, in commercial value, on account 
of mere difference in moisture. 

Consumers of commercial manurial substances do well to buy 
whenever practicable, on a guaranty of composition with reference 
to their essential constituents; and see to it, that the bill of sale 
recognizes that point of the bargain. Any mistake or misunder- 
standing in the transaction may be readily adjusted, in that case, 
between the contending parties. The responsibility of the dealer 
ends with furnishing an article, corresponding in its composition 
with the loioest stated quantity, of each specified essential constituent. 



133 



ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZERS. 



The following analyses by Professor W. W. Cooke, state chem- 
ist, have been received The samples were carefully drawn from 
different lots in variaus parts of the state, and the analyses show 
generally a considerable improvement in the different grades pre- 
viously sold. This, and the decline in price are both advantageous 
to the farmer. 

The methods used in analyses were such as are usual, and were 
as follows : 

Phosphoric Acid. — The phosphoric acid was determined by the 
ammonium citrate method, as recommended by the convention of 
agricultural chemists at Atlanta, Georgia, and precipitated with 
magnesia solution. 

Potash. — The potash was determined, as usual, by means of 
platinum bichloride. 

Nitrogen. — The total nitrogen was determined by the absolute 
method with copper oxide. 

EXPLANATION OF TKRMS. 

JVitrogeniB, commercially, the most costly of any fertilizing element. 
Organic nitrogen is the nitrogen of animal matter, as well as vegetable, 
and is found in the decomposing material of either. It is immed- 
iately available from blood, meat, stable manures and decomposed 
vegetable matter, and but slowly available, if at all, from hair, leather, 
hoofs, etc., hence some fertilizers that have the nitrogen furnished 
from the last-mentioned matei'ials analyze better than they prove in 
use. For this reason the manufacturer should state from what 
material he manufactured his goods or the constituent parts. Am- 
monia and nitric acid are the results of the alteration of organic 
nitrogen. They can be purchased as sulphate of ammonia, or as 
nitrate of soda. Seventeen parts of ammonia, or sixty-six parts of 
pure sulphate of ammonia, contain fourteen parts of nitrogen. 
Eight-five parts of nitrate of soda contain fourteen parts of nitrogen. 
Nitrogen is estimated at a value of seventeen cents per pound. 

Soluble Phosphoric Acid implies that it is soluble in pure water. 
This is readily dissolved by the rain and distributed in the soil, that 
it may be taken up by plants. Its application requii*es great care, 
that it may be distributed so as not to be too strong in places. If 
so, the rootlets of plants are injured and full benefit is not derived. 
Estimated value, eight cents per pound. 

Reverted Phosporic Acid means that it was once fully soluble in 
water, but from chemical change has become insoluble in pure 
water, yet experiment shows it is in the impure water, contained in 
our soils, but not as rapidly as if soluble. It is supposed that the 
soluble becomes reverted in our soil after having been dissolved, 
and then is more uniform in its availability. If so, the reverted 
acid is more valuable than the strickly soluble, as its application is 



134 

less difficult and the danger of injury lessened. In this condition 
it is freely taken up by a strong solution of ammonium citrate, 
which is therefore used to determine its quantity. Those who 
claim it is not so valuable for fertilizing-, claim that it is not so 
easily distribiited by rain. Estimated value, seven and one-half 
cents per pound — though we believe it is equally valuable with 
soluble and should be estimated at the same price. 

Insoluble Jr*hos])horic Acid. — This is phosphate of lime as in 
bones, or as found in the phosphate beds of South Carolina, or the 
apatite rock of Canada. It is to coarse and compact to be dissolved 
either by water ar ammonium citrate. If it is reduced to a very 
fine powder it is, however, available, and if as fine as the reverted 
which has been made so by being once dissolved, we see no reason 
why it should not be as good as the reverted. We find by experience 
that bone-dust, or the mineral when very fine, is truly available and 
we believe the farmer will by and-by use it almost entirely in this 
way. Now valued from two cents per pound in the fine ground rock, 
to seven cents in bone dust, as it has been found by experiment that 
it becomes available in the soil much more readily than at first sup- 
posed. As the insoluble is generally in coarse bone it is figured at 
three cents per pound. 

Potash. — This is the fertilizing ingredient in wood ashes, and the 
base of various potash salts. It is most costly as a sulphate, value 
seven cents per pound, and cheapest as a muriate or chloride, value 
four and one-fourth cents per pound. As in superphosphates, es- 
timated at four and one-half cents. 

The foregoing are the ingredients from which the valuable part of 
the fertilizers sold are made up, though these desirable potions are, 
of course, obtained from material in its crude condition much cheap- 
er than at market rates. This is the legitmate profit of the manu- 
facturer, as the farmer would usually be compelled to buy in mar- 
ket. It is, however, desirable for any farmer to do so, when he can 
make a saving thereby. If he cannot buy the compound desired, he 
must prepare it himself or meet with loss. Let no farmer be afraid 
to test the capabilities of his land, as he may, and usually can, as a 
result get much larger profits. 

ESTIMATION. 

The estimated value of fertilizers, analyzed can be readily found 
by multiplying the number of pounds in a ton, as found from per- 
centage, by the price per pound, as given above, and adding the re- 
sults olbtained from the di£ferent multiplications together. This 
shows a very great difference in their worth and is well worthy the 
attention of farmers when they are about to purchase. 

The following tables show the estimated values of all the super- 
phosphates sold in the state for two 3'ears past ; also the amount of 
the various useful ingredients in a ton of the same. It is well to look 
them over carefully before purchasing ; though this does not show the 
actual value to the purchasers, it approximates to it. 



135 



No. 1. 



Soluble Pacific Guano, manufactured by the Pacific Guano Co., Boston, 

Mass. 









d 








^ 






PI 


rs 






o 


>^a 






EH 


^s 


ValuabIjE Ingredients. 




o3 

a 


0)02 




4i 


.S 


rt f5 






a 


>.-l 




u 


3 


a 




0) 


o 


o 




Ph 


^1 


O 


Nitrogen 


2.32 

6.88 


46.40 
137.60 


!|7 88 


Soluble phosphoric acid 


11.00 


Reverted phosphoric acid 


1.56 


31.20 


2.34 


lusoluble phosphoric acid 


1.98 
3.28 


39.60 
65.60 


1 18 


Potash 


2 95 






Estimated value 


$25.35 



No. 2. 

Bowker''s Hill and Drill Phosphate, manufactured by the Bowker Fertilizer 
Go., Boston, Mass. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid. . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid . 
Insoluble phosphoric acid . 
Potash 



Estimated value . 



3.16 
6.28 
2.09 
2.69 
2.79 



63.20 
125.60 
41.80 
53.80 
55.80 



10.74 

10.24 

3.13 

1.61 

2.51 

$28.03 



No. 3. 

Stockbridge Manure, manufactured by the Bowker Fertilizer Co., Boston, 

Mass. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid . . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid . 
Insoluble phosphoric acid . 
Potash 



Estimated value. 



3.47 
6.62 
1.96 
1.57 
4.05 



69.40 
132.40 
39.20 
31.40 
81.00 



11.79 
10.59 

2.94 
.94 

3.64 

$29.90 



No. 4. 

Bradley X. L. Superphosphate, manufactured by the Bradley Fertilizer 
Co., Boston, Mass. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid . . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid. 
Insoluble phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Estimated value. 



2.39 
8.12 
1.54 
1.17 
2.55 



47.80 
162.40 
30.80 
23.40 
51.00 



8.12 

12.99 

2.31 

.70 

2.29 

*26.41 



136 



No. 5. 



Bradley'' s Patent Phosphate^ manufactured by the Bradley Fertilizer Co., 

Boston, Mass. 



Valuable Ingredients. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid. . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid . 
Insoluble phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Estimated value . 



2.27 
6.97 
1.88 
2.32 
2.59 



4.5.40 
139.40 
37.60 
46.40 
51.80 



c4 

0)03 



> 



$7.71 

11.15 

2.82 

1.39 

2.33 

$25.40 



No. 6. 



B. D. Sea Fowl Guano, manufactured by the Bradley Fertilizer Co., Bos- 
ton, Mass. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid . . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid . 
Insoluble phosphoric acid . 
Potash 



Estimated value . 



2.06 
8.55 
1.92 
1.39 
2.01 



41.20 

171.00 

38.40 

27.80 
40.20 



7.00 
13.68 

2.88 

.83 

1.80 

$26.19 



No. 7. 

Original Coe's Superphosphate, manufactured by the Bradley Fertilizer 
Co., Boston, Mass. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid . . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid . 
Insoluble phosphoric acid . 
Potash 



Estimated value . 



2.34 
8.15 
1.94 
1.19 
1.35 



46.80 
163.00 
38.80 
23.80 
27.00 



7.95 

13.04 

2.91 

.71 

1.21 

$25.82 



No. 8. 

Quinnipiac Phosphate, manufactured by the Qunnipiac Fertilizer Co 

London, Conn. 



New 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid . . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid . 
Insoluble phosphoric scid. 
Potash 



Estimated value. 



2.93 
4.83 
3.70 
2.73 
2.46 



58.60 
96.60 
74.00 
54.60 
49.20 



9.96 
7.72 
5.55 
1.63 
2.21 

$27.07 



137 



No. 9. 



Quinnipiac Potato Phosphate^ manufactured by the Quinnipiac Fertilizer 
Co., New London, Conn. 



Valuable Ingredients. 



©CO 

d 



o 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid . . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid. 
Insoluble phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



2.32 
4.04 
1.55 
0.94 
4.86 



46.40 
80.80 
31.00 
18.80 
97.20 



Estimated value . 



$7.88 

6.46 

2.32 

.56 

4.37 

$21..'i9 



No. 10. 



Bay State Bone Superphosphate of Lime, manufactured by J. A. Tucker & 
Co., Boston, Mass. 

Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid , 

Reverted phosphoric acid 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 

Potash 



Estimated value . 



2.56 
7.42 
1.24 
0.87 
0.64 



51.20 
148.40 
24.80 
17.40 
12.80 



8.70 
11.87 

1.86 
.52 
.57 

$23.52 



No. 11. 

Bay State, manufactured by the Clark's Cove Guano Fertilizer Co., New 

Bedford, Mass. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid. . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid. 
Insoluble phosphoric acid. 
Potash , 



Estimated value . 



3.08 
9.09 
1.13 
1.12 
3.11 



61.60 
181.80 
22.60 
22.40 
62.20 



10.47 
14.54 

1.69 
.67 

2.79 

B30.16 



No. 12. 

Buffalo Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate, manufactured by the L. L. 
Crocker Fertilizer Co., Buffalo, N. Y. 

Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid 

Reverted phosphoric acid 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 

Potash 



Estimated value. 
22 



3.10 
8.14 
1.45 
0.58 

1.87 



62.00 
162.80 
29.00 
11.60 
37.40 



10..54 
13.02 

2.17 
.34 

1.68 

$27.75 



138 



No. 13. 

Buffalo Superphosphate for Potatoes, Hops and Tobacco, manufactured by 
the L. L. Crocker Fertilizer Co., Buffalo, N. Y. 















r^ 


-a 






o 


>>9 






H 


^B, 






c3 


OjCE 


Valuable Ingredients. 




r- 


s 




-w 


..- 


"S ^ 






'n 


►r o 




V 




'^ s 












u 


^ 


S 




<s> 


O 


o 




PL, 


^ 


^ 


Nitroge u 


3.10 

7.82 


62.00 
156.40 


$10.54 


Soluble pliosptioric acid 


12.51 


Reverted phosphoric acid 


1.39 


27.80 


2.08 




1.04 


20.80 


.62 


Potash 


4.37 


87.40 


• 3.93 


Estimated value 


.f29.68 



No. 14. 

Buffalo Superphosphate No. 2, manufo.ctored by the L. L. Crocker Fertil- 
izer Co. Buffalo, N. Y. 



Nitrogeu 

Soluble phosphoric acid. . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid. 
Insoluble phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Estimated value. 



0.00 
6.36 
4.58 
1.74 
0.96 



00.00 
127.20 
91.60 
34.80 
19.20 



00.00 

10.17 

6.87 

1.04 

86 

*18.94 



No. 15. 

Queen City Superphosphate, manufactured by the L. L i rocker Fertilizer 
Co., Buffalo, N. Y. 

Nitrogeu 

Soluble phosphoric acid 

Reverted phosphoric acid 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 

Potash 



Estimated value. 



1.71 


34.20 


5.81 


6.29 


125.80 


10.06 


1.89 


37.80 


2.85 


1.74 


34.80 


1.04 


1.54 


30.80 


1.38 



421.14 



No. 16. 

Homestead Superphosphate, manufactured by the Michigan Carbon Works 
Fertilizer Co., Detroit, Mich. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid 

Reverted phosphoric acid.. 
Insoluble phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Estimated value. 



2.25 


45.00 


7.65 


7.50 


150.00 


12.00 


1.57 


31.40 


2.35 


1.70 


34.00 


1.02 


1.21 


24.20 


1.08 



$24.10 



139 



No. 17. 



Orient Complete Manure, manufactured by the Atlantic and Virginia Fer- 
tilizer Co., Elizabethtown, N. J. 



Valuable Ingrebients. 



Nitrogeu 

Soluble phosphoric acid. . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid . 
Insoluble phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Estimated value . 



1.95 
6M 
3.81 
0.78 
1.16 



39.00 
127.00 
76.20 
15.60 
23.20 



03 

^ et 
r' a 



f6.63 
10.16 

5.71 
,46 

1.04 

$24.00 



No. 18. 

Americus, manufactured by the Wm. Clark & Co. Fertilizer Co., New 

York, N. T. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid . . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid. 
Insoluble phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Estimated value . 



3.34 
7.83 
1.01 
1.60 
3.01 



66.80 
156.60 
20.20 
32.00 
60.20 



11.35 
12.52 

1.51 
.96 

2.70 

$29.04 



No. 19. 

Slack Dissolved Bone, manufactured by the Slack Fertilizer Co., Spring- 
field, Vt. 

Nitrogeu 

Soluble phosphoric acid 

Reverted phosphoric acid 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 

Potash 



Estimated value . 



3.46 


69.201 


2.77 


55.40 


2.60 


52.00 


4.08 


83.60 


5.79 


115.80 




11.76 
4.43 
3.90 
2.44 
5.21 

Ji27.74 



No. 20. 

Slack''s Champion Bone Phosphate, manufactured by the Slack Fertilizer 
Co., Springfield, Vt. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid., 
Insoluble phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Estimated value . 



3.16 
2.68 
2.44 
5.58 
5.95 



63.20 
53.60 
48.80 
111.60 
119.00 



10.74 
4.28 
3,66 
3.34 
6.35 

$27.37 



140 



No. 21. 

Cumberland Superphosphate, manufactured by the Cumberland Bone Co 
Fertilizer Co., Portland, Me. 



Valuable Ingredients. 




C 

o 

H 

*e3 

.9 

ID 

a 

3 


1 

^$ 

3 

a 

o 
O 




2.34 
7.78 
1.44 
1.32 
3.69 


46.80 

155.60 

28.80 

26.40 

73.80 


$7.95 


Soluble phosphoric acid 


12.44 


Reverted phosphoric acid 


2.16 


Insoluble phosphoric acid 


.79 


Potash 


3.32 






Estimated value 


$26.66 



No. 22. 

Bradley^s Ammoniated Dissolved Bone, manufactured by the Bradley Fer- 
tilizer Co., Boston, Mass. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid. . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid. 
Insoluble phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Estimated value . 



1.53 
9.96 
1.17 
1.13 
1.95 



30.60 
199.20 
23.40 
22.60 
39.00 



5.20 

15.93 

1.75 

.67 

1.74 

$25.29 



No. 23. 

Quinnipiac Pine Island Phosphate, manufactured by the Quinnipiac Fer- 
tilizer Co., New London, Conn. 



Nitrogen 

Solul)le phosphoric acid . . . 
Reverted phpsphoric acid . 
Insoluble phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Estimated value. 



2.71 
8.49 
1.21 
0.81 
1.42 



54.20 
169.80 
24.20 
16.20 
28.40 



9.21 

13.58 

1.81 

.48 
1.27 

$26.35 



No. 24. 

Ammoniated Bone, manufactured by the Bussel Coe Fertilizer Co. 

York, N. Y. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid. . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid 
Insoluble phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Estimated value. 



1.34 
4.96 
2.58 
7.69 
1.61 



26.80 
99.20 
51.60 
153.80 
33.20 



New 



4.55 
7.93 
3.87 
4.61 
1.44 

122.40 



141 



No. 25. 

Common Sense Fertilizer iVo. 2, manufactured by the Common Sense Fer- 
tilizer Co., Boston, Mass. 



Valuable Ingredients. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid. . . 
Reverted phosi^horic acid. 
Ijisohible phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Estimated value . 



1.76 
0.84 
2.45 
5.52 
3.55 



35.20 
16.80 
49.00 
110.40 
71.00 



03 



O 



•*5.98 
1.34 
3.67 
3.31 
3.19 

fl7.49 



No. 26. 

Common Sense Fertilizer D, manufactured by the Common Sense Fertilizer 
Co., Boston, Mass. 

Nitrogeu 

Soluble phosphoric acid 

Reverted phosphoric acid 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 

Potash 



Estimated value . 



1.09 
trace 
0.95 
2.46 
0.84 



21.80 



3.70 



1.42 
1.47 

.76 

$7.35 



No. 27. 



Listers'' Standard Phosphate, manufactured by the Lister Brothers Fertil- 
izer Co., Newark, If. J. 

Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid 

Reverted phosphoric acid 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 

Potash 



Estimated value. 



2.14 
9.12 
2.27 
2.11 
1.99 



42.80 
182.40 
45.40 
42.20 
39.80 



7.27 
14.59 
3.40 
1.26 
1.79 

$28.31 



No. 28. 



Listers'* Ammoniated Dissolved Bone Phosphate, manufactured by the Lis- 
ter Brothers Fertilizer Co., Newark, N. J. 

Nitrogen 1.57 31.40 

Soluble phosphoric acid 8.01 160.20 

Reverted phosphoric acid 1.94 38 . 80 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 0.85 17.00 

Potash 2.13 42.60 



Estimated value . 



5.33 

12.81 

2.91 

.51 

1.91 

$23.47 



142 



No. 29. 

Listers'' Potato Fertilizer, manufactured by the Lister Brothers Fertilizer 
Co., Newark, N. J. 









-O 








^ 








03 






a 


-C 






o 


>.fl 






H 


^^ 






03 


(BCK 


Valuable Ingredients. 




a 


s 




42 


.o 


"3 fl 




a 


<» 


s 




0) 

o 


3 




<o 


O 


o 




Oh 


Ph 


^ 


Nitrogen 


4.47 


89.40 


$15.19 


Soluble phosphoric acid 


8.23 


164.60 


13.16 


Reverted phosphoric acid 


0.68 


13.60 


1.02 


lusoluble phosphoric acid 


0.77 
7.54 


15.40 
150.80 


.46 


Potash 


6.78 






Estimated value 


$36.61 



No. 30. 

Dole's Fertilizer I^o. 1. — 203. /or all crops, manufactured by Dole Fertilizer 
Co., Boston, Mass. 

Assay by Prof. S. P. Sharpies. 

Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid 

Reverted phosphoric acid 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 

Potash 



Estimated value . 



2.44 
4.99 

4.78 

.75 

3.88 



48.80 
99.80 
95.60 
15.00 
77.60 



8.29 

7.98 

7.17 

.45 

8.49 



$27.38 



No. 31. 

E. Frank Coe''s High Grade Superphosphate, manufact^ired by the E. 
Frank Coe Fertilizer Co , New York, N. Y. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid . . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid. 
Insoluble phosphoric acid . 
Potash 



Estimated value. 



2.15 


43.00 


7.31 


8.50 


170.00 


13.60 


2.67 


53.40 


4.00 


2.25 


45.00 


1.35 


1.59 


31.80 


1.43 



No. 32. 

Buffalo Special Superphosphate, manufactured by Smith & Becker. Trus- 
tees, Buffalo Fertilizer Co., Buffalo, N. ¥. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid. . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid. 
Insoluble ijhosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Estimated value. 



1.59 
8.48 
1.70 
.47 
2.92 



31.80 

169.60 

34.00 

9.40 

58.40 



5.40 

13.56 

2.55 

.28 

2.62 

$23.41 



143 



No. 33. 

Fish and Potash, manufactured hy Wm. I. Brightman & Co. Fertilizer 
Co., Tiverton, R. 1. 









-C 








u 








es 






a 


-O 






O 


>iS 






H 


^$ 






cs 


05 GO 


Valuable Ingredients. 




c 






■p 




"3 C 









>°s 




u 


3 


s 




0) 


O 


o 




p^ 


Ph 


O 


Nitrogen 


3 09 


61.80 


$10 50 


Soluble phosphoric acid 


2.57 


51.40 


4.11 
1.86 


Reverted, phosphoric acid 


1.24 


24.80 


Insoluble phosphoric acid '. 


3.81 


76.20 


2.28 


Potash 


3.16 


63.20 


2.68 






Estimated value 


!|21.43 



No. 34. 

Common Sense No. 1, manufactured hy the Common Sense Fertilizer Co., 

Boston, Mass. 



Nitrogen 

Soluble phosphoric acid. . . 
Reverted phosphoric acid. 
Insoluble phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Estimated value. 



35.20 




5.98 



3.19 
2.32 
2.98 



$14.47 



No. 35. 

Darling''s Animal Fertilizer, manufactured hy the L. B. Darling Fertilizer 
Co., Pawtucket, R. I. 

Assay by Prof. C. A. Goessmau. 

Nitrogen 

Solul)le phosphoric acid 

Reverted phosphoric acid 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 

Potash 



Estimated value. 



3.30 
0.34 
2.-36 
8.38 
3.94 



66.00 

6.80 

47.20 

167.60 

78.80 



11.22 

.54 

3.54 

5.02 

3.54 

$23.86 



No. 36. 

Flamingo Ouano, manufactured by Flamingo Guano Co. , Baltimore, M. D. 

Assay by Prof. C. A. Goessman. 

Nitrogen 0.80 16.001 

Soluble phosphoric acid 0.48 9. GO. 

Reverted phosphoric acid 5.22 104.40' 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 10.47 209.20; 

Potash 0.31 6.20 



Estimated value . 



2.72 

.76 

7.83 

6.27 

.27 



$17.85 



144 



Nn. 37. 

DoWs Fertilizer iVo. 2, Special Potato, manufactured by Dole Fertilizer 
Co.. Boston, Mass. 



Assay by Prof. S. P. Sharpies. 








ValuabllE Ingredients. 


4^ 

a 
o 
u 
Ph 


.3 

a 
s 
o 

Ph 


1 

0)03 

3 

g 

o 


Nitrogen 


2.52 
4.99 
5.09 
.70 
4.90 


50.40 
99.80 
101.80 
14.00 
98.00 


<$8.56 


Soluble phosphoric acid 


7.98 


Reverted phosphoric acid . . 

Insoluble phosphoric acid 


7.63 
.42 


Potash 


4.41 






Estimated value 


$29.00 



Nos. 30. 35, 36, and 37, did not understand, or undertook to evade our law, 
hence the analysis by Goessnaan, and Sharpies, instead of Cooke, as after 
they adjusted the license there was no time to analyze the samples. 



145 



OUR HOMES. 

In one of the most elevated villages of New England, twelve hundred 
ten feet above sea level, is our home, and at about the same height 
and higher is the land we cultivate. The view is a very fine one. The 
■ White Mountain range with its bold summits skirts the horizon from 
the East to the South-west, the peaks being scarcely more than twenty- 
five miles distant. Fogs or mosquitoes we do not have, as they sel 
dom reach so high an altitiide, but pure water from springs is 
abundant on every hand, yet drainage is easy, for it is all side-hill. 
Such a place I have chosen for my home, and I would that there 
were no worse localities. Yet this almost model locality is not free 
from disease and death. Still the land is productive and we have 
pure air, pleasant sunshine, and not overmuch wind. It is 
true there are hundreds of similar localities in Vermont. But I be- 
lieve the first step toward long life and happiness is to be satisfied 
with our home, as contentment fortifies the possessor against dis- 
ease ; yet we will follow Dr. G-. A. Bo wen, as we point out other links 
in the chain that bind all alike in this world, hoping that some may 
improve their surroundings by consideration of the subject. Others 
become more contented as they feel safety and immunity in their 
nearly faultless surroundings. 

Physiology and hygiene teach us that perfect health, robust and 
vigorous constitutions can be obtained and maintained only through 
the instrumentality of nourishing foods, pure aii', bright sunlight 
and long periods of undisturbed and refreshing sleep, together with 
suitable mental and physical exercise, living in accordance with 
nature, and not with the dictates of fashion, thus training ourselves 
for an artificial existence. Where and in what avocation can these 
conditions be so completely carried out as upon the farm '1 For here 
is raised the major portion of the foods that support the human 
race, and the production of them compels the tiller of the soil to 
pass the working hours of the day in the pure air and invigorating 
sunshine, exercising his muscles by carrying out the dictates of a 
previously exercised mind. The work of the farm compels no labor 
during the hours of the night, hence sleep, "nature's sweet restorer," 
need not be interfered with. The farm, then, possessing all the 
requisites for health, should give us the strongest, soundest and 
most vigorous and long-lived class in the community ; and, judging 
by conditions by a priori reasoning, the farmer should be a model 
of manly health and beauty, tall and sinewy and by reason of air, food 
and exercise, deep-chested and full-blooded. His frame should be 
an illustration of physical perfection, disclaiming all knowledge of 
disease, and his face a fitting crown therefor, made perfect by 
thoughtful and intelligent observation, study and reasoning. To 



146 

this class should the artist look for his example of a Hercules or an 
Adonis. To repeat, the conditions for this physical perfection, the 
means that lead to it, are in greater perfection on the farm than in 
the office, store or work-shop. 

But experience shows that it is not true, as too many of our farm 
homes lack the proper requisites of comfort. In fine, the average 
farm-house is far from being perfect in its sanitary conditions. 

SHADE TREES. 

How few homes have shade trees properly placed around them ! 
Yet no home is quite complete without the aid of trees and shrub- 
bery, whicta serve to cool the fervid beats of summer, and screen as 
well from the wmtry blasts, besides lending a cheerful coziness to 
the place, which makes it truly a home. But how often are all of 
these purposes changed by a want of thought regarding their 
positions ! They are frequently placed so as to completely shade the 
house, rendering its air damp and unwholesome from the mould and 
decay silently going on, which as silently but as surely extend to 
the minds and bodies of the inmates ; for in a decaying house there 
will be decaying bodies, and in such how can there be anything, so 
to speak, but mouldy and decaying minds ? Put trees near the 
house, but not so near but that the sun will shine upon it sometime 
during the day, giving it the benefit of its chemistry. Let its light 
in through the windows, and not obstruct it by shrubs. They are 
for ornamenting your grounds, and not for burying the dwelling in 
seclusion and gloom. Besides, their appearance is greatly enhanced 
by standing by themselves, or artistically grouped in positions away 
from the house, and not immediately under the eaves. If it is 
desired that a bare wall should be covered, or a doorway porch 
made shady and attractive, vines can be used to far better advant- 
age. The sun can penetrate their light foliage enough to dry it, 
and their numerous rootlets, by which they cling to their support, 
will absorb moisture rather than harbor it, giving the full object 
desired by shade — a cool, dry atmosphere. 

OUTBUILDINGS HANDY. 

We may also notice that a desire for convenience — having things 
handy, as it is termed — has in many instances been made an excuse 
for laziness, or shows gross ignorance on the part of the owner, and 
one is fully as reprehensible as the other in the grouping and 
arrangement of the out buildings. The barn, with its cattle-yard, 
the pig-pen and poultry-house, the privy and the well, all seem to 
be striving to show the most sociability for the kitchen door, filling 
the air with ill odors and the soil with filth and fever germs, to be 
carried into the well with every permeating rain. I would advise 
you to have an eye to them all, and, if you can view them from the 
standpoint we are occupying, sweep them away as you would a 
murderer or seducer who was trying to rob you of the fair members 
of your family ; for pure water is as necessary to good health as 
morality is to godliness. 



147 



INTERIOR OF THE FARM HOUSE, 



The interior of the farm house, as a efeneral thing, has about as 
many objections, when considered as aids to disease, as the exterior. 
New England houses, as a rule, I have found to be well ventilated, 
excepting, perhaps, certain poi'tions. This is not due so much, how- 
ever, to the ingenuity of the builder as it is to the force of the wind, 
which will not be kept out. A principal exception is the cellar, and 
oh, farmer, if you are not guilty of the other omissions that I have 
pointed out, I am afi'aid that you are here, for it does seem to me 
that the accumulations of the produce of the farm that are stored 
therein and allowed to remain late into the summer, until they sicken 
your wife and your childi-en, should make you sick of the expense 
of doctors' bills at least. 

Cellars,as a rule, are not well drained, and are consequently damp, 
and all more or less dark, thus precluding cleanliness, giving rise to 
the very conditions best adapted to the propagation of disease 
germs. If one will have a cellar under the house have it well 
drained, and its walls and floors cemented. With an outside drain 
around the house to prevent the saturation of the soil, it may 
be kept dry. The cellar should be partly above ground to allow of 
windows to admit air and light. 

THE SLEEPING- ROOM. 

It is safe to say that two-thirds of the Vermont farmers, when 
they retire to-night will do so in a room on the ground floor, perhaps 
on the north side of the house and over the cellar. One window is 
closely screened, the bed placed against it, precluding its use, the 
other opens upon an almost grassless corner of the ground, made 
rank and noisome by the shade of an apple or other tree, intensified 
by the addition of a rampant growing woodbine, making in summer 
a capital place for the boys to dig tlieir bait when they go a fishing, 
and in winter a reservoir for ice cold air, conducive to pneumonia 
and rheumatism. Why not use the best and most cheerful room in 
the house, instead of stealing away to such a place resembling the 
cell of a criminal ? The best room in the house is not too good for 
the farmer. He owns it, and by his day of toil has earned a further 
right to its comforts and benefits ; and we firmly believe that he 
would not only feel happier, brighter and stronger for it. but also 
that his '• doctor's bill " at the end of the year would be far smaller. 
As it is, if he closes the window he feels suffocation, and so he usu- 
ally opens it and admits the pestilential night air. He had many 
times better sleep in a healthful locality outdoors. But, say some, in 
imaginary horror, don't we need ventilation? Yes ; but this is not 
ventilation. It is the admission of the cold, damp, unhealthful night 
air upon you, so that one side chills while the other is warm. It ad- 
mits the draft spoken of by Prof. Angus Smith, which he says is more 
deadly than the sword. Ventilation is one thing needful, and, where 
not prepared for in building, may be secured by raising the sash four 
inches and placing under it a close fitting piece of board, stopping en- 
tirely the chance of a draft, and the upward current of air between 



.148 

the glass and sash shows you the way outside air should be admitted. 
A grate into your chimney, where you formerly had a fire-place, is the 
way impure air should be let out. 

Open fires in stoves are good ventilators, but air-tight stoves with- 
out ventilation are costly pets. 

Allow us here to say that warming an upper room with the heated 
and vitiated air of the room below it by means of a register, is false 
economy ; better bring the stove-pipe through the ceiling and into a 
drum, which will utilize the heat which otherwise escapes into the 
chunney, and which will give a temperature sufficient for all purposes 
for which such an upper room is used. 

Healthful arrangements for the lighting, heating and drainage of 
houses should never be objected to on the score of expense, as we 
have repeatedly heard them. No argument from us is necessary to 
show that vigorous health is of more importance than dollars and 
cents. But really these sanitary measures are far less expensive 
than the old way of living. The saving of the items of expense of 
one illness alone would be enough to re-arrange the whole place for a 
complete sanitarium. All that is required is a little thoughtful con- 
sideration, a little brain-work, all of which is within the power of 
him who successfully tills Vermont soil. 

FOOD. 

Is the farmer's diet a perfect one for the labor required of him ? 
and is the boasted New England cooking the best method of render- 
ing available the nutritive properties of that food ? Without attempt- 
ing to show the scientific classification of food, and all its details, 
which is an extensive study in itself, we will pass at once to the char- 
acter of the food supply of the farm, and we find that nowhere else 
is there such a variety presented for the selection of any one man, or 
class of men. The beef, veal, mutton, lamb, pork, poultry and egg 
supply of the whole country is produced of course upon the farm ; it 
belongs to the farmer, and he can make his selection from it before it 
leaves him. So also with regard to grains and vegetables which ren- 
der the city markets so attractive. The long list of meats, vegeta- 
bles and fruits and the products of the dairy that are shown by some 
farms, is simply astonishing. They show a complete food, 
possessing all necessary elements required b}' the demands of the 
system. In addition to the articles mentioned, some of the more 
modern farms can show their carp and trout ponds, still further aug- 
menting the list. So, then, we see that the farmer can have the best 
food of the land. Does he make use of it for his table? No : he sells 
it. I know that he must have cash to meet his obligations, and that 
it must come from the products of the farm, which is business-like 
and right. But would it not be well to divide things a little ? Instead 
of selling all the meat products except pork, would it not be better 
to dispose of a portion of that, and retain some of the others, thus 
giving a variety to the diet? The cash returns for an average of 
years would be the same, and the satisfaction and welfare of the fam 
ily greater. But some one says, my farm does not show such an ar- 
ray as has been enumerated, so I am counted out. But can it not be 



149 

made to produce more of a variety than it does? A little systematic 
planning here will tell. Sell less hay, or better yet, none at all ; keep 
more cattle and sheep, and consume it at home, thus maintaining the 
fertility of the land, the plethora of the pocket-book and having the 
satisfaction of "a good square meal" at regular intervals. Cannot 
the garden also be made to yield tnore of a variety and support? 
Perhaps we had better not speak of a farmer's garden. You will ac- 
cuse us of being too personal. We have noticed that some farmers 
appear reticent on the subject of their garden, which has led us 
sometimes to think that they did not have any. The farmer does not 
eat vegetables enough. Potatoes are the only ones that he habitu- 
ally indulges in. If he raises others he markets them, and confines 
himself to the unvarying round of pork, potatoes and i^astry. 

This is not as it should be. Every farmer's household sUould have 
the best of food and fruits in abundance, and all should be eaten at 
meal-time ; not now and then, all day, as is so often the case. The 
dessert at the table should be fruit, not pies and cakes. The worth of 
all fruit is much injured b}' the cooking. No people are so wedded 
to pie as New England farmers. You can tell that he belongs to 
New England anywhere b}^ that propensity, as well as you can tell a 
German by his beer. 

THE farmer's family. 

It is not the health of the farmer alone that claims our attention 
to-day, but also that of his family. First, the farmer's wife — what is 
her status as regards health? She does not take as high a stand as 
her husband does ; facts carry out what the natural supposition would 
be. Her labor is more incessant and of a far more vexatious char- 
acter, is performed within doors, away from the exhilarating effects 
of air and sunshine, and she receives less stimulus from her surround- 
ings ; add to this the bearing and rearing of children, and labors that 
she is obliged to perform when the functions of her system require 
rest, and one can readily see that it must rank lower. 

It has always been an enigma to us why any woman would marry 
a farmer. You ma}' in turn express surprise why thej' will a phys- 
ician, but the}' do both, inscrutableas it ma}' seem. I have known the 
farmer to select his wife as he would a mate for his horse, for the 
amount of labor that she could perform, fieely questioning with his 
neighbors if she were able to keep her whiffletree even with his, as 
they drew the burden of labor, tender regard and love having a sub- 
ordinate place. Think what the farmer's wife does for him when he 
brings her to his dwelling and she commences the fulfillment of her 
duties. From that time on she does, for him and the hired men, the 
cooking, the washing and mending, makes many of her husband's 
garments and all of her own, and those of her children as they suc- 
cessively appear, attends to the dairy, and on some few farms feeds 
the pigs and poultry, and lugs in wood and water for the household 
purposes. Is it any surprise that Nature soon exhausts herself and 
the woman dies? Did you ever think how many among your own 
acquaintances are living with their second or third wife? Compare 
it with the converse and you will be surprised at the different results. 



150 

What killed the woman ? The certificate of her death filed with the 
town clerk will give the scientific name of the disease that was the 
immediate cause, and at the funeral the minister doubtless said it 
was one of the m3'sterious dispensations of Providence. But I tell 
you that, back of it, was the toil of years, cheered with but few com- 
forting words and sympathies ; broken down before her time that the 
mortgage might be paid, or the little fund in the bank increased. 
Where was the comfort of her Ufe? Did she go anywhere? Did she 
see friends ? Did she have books and opportunities to read them ? 
Was her mental capacity increased, and her life made progressive and 
better fitted for an eternal hereafter, by the years that she spent as 
that man's wife? Forbid that it should ever be repeated, and yet it 
is to-day, at this very hour, thoughtlessly, perhaps, in many in- 
tances, but nevertheless as etfectually. Life's early dreams and 
hopes, the accomplishments learned in maidenhood, even ambition 
itself, are swallowed up by the mighty maelstroom of work that ruins 
her health, inflicts keen sutlering, and finally demands life itself — 
work that should have been, much of it, performed by men. 

There is a bright picture in the children of the farhi. They are 
the robust and vigorous little specimens that one would wish to see. 
Strong and well developed, possessed of inquiring minds and happy 
dispositions, with good digestive powers, assimilating their food well, 
and consequently laying the foundation for future mental and phys- 
ical strength, presenting,in the sum total, quite a contrast to the child- 
ren reared within the limits of the cities. This is just what we 
should expect from the premises that we have assumed for free exer- 
cise within the limits of their strength, performed in the open air and 
sunshine. The food largely composed of milk and fruit, and the long 
periods devoted to sleep, are just the conditions for perfect health. 

Why should they not be kept so? 

God speed the time when woman shall everywhere have the same 
rights of control that man has. vShe will then change some of the 
ills of our present conditions of life. 

As it is, life is to her anything but desirable, and you will pardon 
me by annexing for your careful consideration the life pictures drawn 
by Mrs. Rose Terry Cooke, of the 

TWO MRS. TUCKERS. 

"You can make the fire while I put the boss out," said Amasa 
Tucker, as he opened the back door of a gray house, set on top of a 
treeless hill,' tracked here and there with the paths the geese had 
made in their daily journeys to the pond below, and only approached 
at the back by a lane to the great red barn, and a rickety board gate 
set between two posts of the rail fence. 

This was Wealthy Ann Tucker's home-coming. She had mar- 
ried Amasa that morning at her father's house in Stanton, a little 
village twenty miles away from Peet's Mills, the town within whose 
wide limits lay the Tucker farm ; and had come home with him this 
early spring-afternoon in the old wagon, behind the bony horse that 
did duty for Amasa's family carriage. 



151 

Mrs. Tucker was a tall, thin young woman, with a sad reticent 
face, ver}' silent and capable ; these last traits had been her chief 
recommendation to her husband. There was no sentiment about the 
matter. Old Mrs. Tucker had died two weeks before this marriage, 
but Amasa was "forehanded," and knowing his mother could not live 
long, had improved his opportunities and been "sparkin" Wealthy 
Ann Miner all winter, in judicious provision for the coming event of 
his solitude. 

He had thought the thing all over, and concluded that a wife was 
cheaper than a hired girl, and more permanent ; so when he found 
this alert, firm-jointed, handy girl living at her uncle's, who was a 
widower on a great farm on the other side of the village, Amasa 
made her acquaintance as soon as possible, and proceeded to further 
intimacy. Wealthy liked better to work for her uncle than for a 
step-father with six children, but she thought it would be better still 
to have a house of her own ; so she agreed to marry Amasa Tucker, 
and this was her home-coming. 

She opened the the door into a dingy room with an open fire-place 
at one end, a window on the north and one on the south side, small 
paned with old, green, and imperfect glass, and letting in but just 
enough light to work by. One corner, to the north, was partitioned 
off to make a pantry, and a door by the fire-place led out into the 
wood-shed. The front of the house contained two rooms. One open- 
ed into the kitchen and was a bedroom, furnished sparsely enough ; 
the other was a parlor, with high-backed, rush-bottomed chairs 
against the wall, a round table in the middle, a fire-place with brass 
and irons, and fire-irons, a family Bible on the table, and a '-mourn- 
ing-piece" painted in ground hair on the mantel. Green paper 
shades and white cotton curtains, a rag carpet, fresh as it came from 
the loom — if its dinginess could ever be called fresh — and a straight- 
backed sofa covered with green and yellow glazed chints, made as 
dreary an apartment as could well be imagined. Wealthy shut the 
door behind her quickly, and went to the shed for material to make 
her fire. It was almost sundown, and she was hungry ; but she 
found only the scantiest supply of wood, and a few dry cliips for 
kindling. However, she did her best, and she had brought some pro- 
visions from home, so that she managed to lay out a decent supper 
on' the ricket}' table by the time Amasa came stamping in from the 
barn. 

He looked disapprovingly at the pie, the biscuit, the shaved beef, 
and the jelly set before him. 

"I hope ye ain't a waster, Wealthy," he growled. 

"There's vittles enough fur a township and the' ain't but two 
of us." 

" Well, our folks sent'em over ; and you no need to eat'em," she 
answered, cheerily. 

" I ain't goin' to ; don't ye break into that jell, set it by ; some- 
time or nuther somebody may be a comin' here, and you'll want it." 

Wealthy said no more ; they made their supper of biscuit and beef, 
for the pie also was ordered " set by." 

She was used to economy, but not to stinginess, and she excused 



152 

this extreme thrift in her husband more easily for the reason she had 
been always poor, and she knew very well that he was not rich to say 
the least. But it was only the beginning. 

Hard as Wealthy had worked at her uncle's, here she found harder 
burdens ; she had to draw and fetch all the water she used from an 
old-fashioned well with a heavy sweep ; picturesque to see, but 
wearisome to use. Wood was scarce, for though enough grew on the 
hundred acres that Amasa owned, he grudged its use. 
"'I shan't cut down no more than is reely needful," he said, when she 
urged him to fetch her a load ; "wood's allers a growin' when ye don't 
cut it, and a makin' for lumber ; and lumber's better to sell, a sight, 
than coi'd-wood. Ye must git along somehow with brush ; mother 
used to burn next to nothin'." 

She did not remind him that his mother was bent double with 
rheumatism, and died of the fifth attack of pneumonia. Wealthy 
never wasted words. 

Then there were eight cows to milk, the milk to strain, set, skim, 
churn, or make into cheese, and nothing but the simplest utensils to 
do with. A cloth held over the edge of the pail served for a strain- 
er ; the pails themselves were heavy wood, the pans old, and 
some of them leaky, the holes stopped with bits of rag, often to be 
renewed ; the milk room was in the shed, built against the chimney 
that it might not freeze there in winter, and onl}' aired b}^ one slatted 
window; the churn was an old wooden one with a dasher, and even 
the "spaddle" with which she worked her butter was whittled out of 
a maple knot by Amasa himself, and was heavy and rough. 
Then to her belonged feeding of the the pigs — gaunt, lean animals with 
sharp snouts, ridgy backs, long legs and thin flanks, deep-set eyes that 
gleamed with intelligent malice, and never-sated hunger. Wealthy 
grew almost afraid of them when the}' clambered up on the rails of 
the pen in their fury for food and flapped their pointed ears at her, 
squealing and fighting for the scanty fare that she brought. For 
Amasa underfed and overworked everything that belonged to him. 

Then there were hens to look after — the old-fashioned barn door 
"creepers," who wanted food too, and yet catered for themselves in 
great measure, and made free with barn and woodshed, for want of 
their own quarters, and were decimated every season by hawks, owls, 
skunks, weasels and foxes, to sa}^ nothing of the little chickens on 
which crows and cats worked then- will, if they dared to stray beyond 
the ruinous old coop contrived for them by Amasa's inventive genius 
out of sticks and stones. 

Add to all this the cooking, washing, baking and sewing, the 
insufficient supply of pork, potatoes, and tough pies, the "b'iled din- 
ners" whose strength lay in the vegetables, rather than the small 
square of fat pork cooked with them, of which Amasa invariably 
took the lion's share : these accumulating and never ceasing labors 
all wore day by day on the vitality of Mrs. Tucker, and when to 
these were added an annual baby, life became a terror and a burden 
to the poor woman. 

But what did Amasa care? He, too, worked from "sun to sun." 



153 

He farmed in the hard old fashion, with rude implements and no 
knowledge but — 

''My father done it afore me so I'm a goin' to do it now ; no use 
talking." One , by one the wailing pun}' children were laid away in 
the little yard on top of the sandhill, where the old Tuckers and 
their half-dozen infants lay already : a rough inclosure full of mulleins, 
burdocks, and thistles, overrun with low blackberry vines and sur- 
rounded by a rail fence. It had been much handier for the Tuckers 
to have a grave-yard close by than to travel live miles to the Mills 
with every funeral : and the}' were not driven by public opinion in 
regard to monuments ; they all lay there like the beasts that perish, 
with but one scant grey stone to tell where the first occupant left his 
tired bones. Two children of Wealthy's survived, Amasa and Lurana, 
the oldest and youngest of seven. 

Amasa, a considerate, intelligent boy, who thought much and said 
little, and Lurana or "Lury" as her name was generally given, a 
mischievous, self-willed little imp, the delight and torment of her 
worn-out mother. Young Amasa was a boy quite beyond his father's 
understanding ; as soon as he was old enough he began to help his 
mother in every way he could devise. And when his term at the vil- 
lage school was over,to his father's great disgust, he trapped squirrels 
and gathered nuts enough to earn his own money and subscribe for 
an agricultural paper, which he studied every week till its contents 
were thoroughly stored in his head. Then began that "noble dis- 
content" which the philosophers praise. 

The elder man had no peace in his old-world ways ; the sloppy 
waste of the barn-yard was an eye-sore to this " book-learned feller," 
as his faiher derisively called him. And the ashes of the wood-fire 
were saved and sheltered like precious du.st, instead of thrown into 
a big heap to edify the wandering hens. The desolate garden was 
plowed, fertilized and set in order at last, and the great ragged or- 
chard manured, the apple trees thinned and trimmed, and ashes sown 
thick over the old mossy sod. Now these things were not done in a 
day or a year, but as the boy grew older and more able to cope with 
his father's self-conceit more was done annually, not without much 
opposition and many hard words, but still done. 

Then came a heavy blow. Lurana, a girl of fifteen, fresh and 
pretty as a wild rose, and tired of the pinching economy, the mon- 
otonous work and grinding life of the farm, ran away with a tin ped- 
dler, and broke her mother's heart ; not in the physical sense that 
hearts are sometimes broken, but the weary woman's soul was set on 
this bright, winsome child, and her life lost all its scant savor when 
the blooming face and clear young voice left her forever. 
♦ "I don't blame her none, Amas}^" she sobbed out to her bo\^, now 
a stout fellow of twenty-two, raging at his sister's foil}'. 

"I cant feel to blame her. I know 'tis more'n a girl can bear to 
live this way. I've had to, but it's been dreadful hard — dreadful 
hard ! I've wished more'n once I could ha' laid down along with the 
little babies out there on the hill, so's to rest a spell ; but there was 
you and Lury wanted me, and so my time hadn't come. 

23 



154 

"Amasy, you're a man grown now, and if you should get married, 
and I s'pose you will — men folks seem to think it's needful, whether 
or no — do kinder make it easy for her, poor creetur ! Don't grind her 
down to skin and bone like me, dear ; 'tain't just right, I'm sure on't, 
never to make no more of a woman that ef she was a horned creetur ; 
don't do it." 

•' Mother, I never will !" answered the son, as energetically and 
solemnly as if he were taking his oath. 

But Wealthy was nearer to her rest than she knew ; the enem}' that 
lurks in dirt, neglect, poor food, constant drudgery, and the want of 
every wholesome and pleasurable excitment to mind and body, and 
when least expected swoops down and does its fatal errand in the 
isolated farm-house no less than in the crowded city slums, the 
scourge of New England, typhoid fever, broke out in the Tucker 
homestead. 

Wealthy turned away from her weekly baking one Saturd.ay morn- 
ing just as the last pie was set on the broad pantry shelf, and fainted 
on the kitchen floor, where Araasa the younger found her an hour af- 
ter, muttering, delirious and cold. 

What he could do then, or the village doctor, or an old woman 
who called herself a nurse, was all useless ; but the best skill of any 
kind would have been equally futile ; she was never conscious again 
for a week ; then her eyes seemed to see what was about her once 
more ; she looked up at her boy, laid her wan cheek on her hand, 
smiled — and died. ,,_ 

Hardly had her wasted shape been put away under the mulleins 
and hard hack, when her husband came in from the hayfield smitten 
with the same plague. He was harder to conquer. Three weeks of 
alternate burning, sinking, raving and chills, ended at last in the 
grey and grim repose of death for him, and another Amasa Tucker 
reigned alone in the old house on the hill. 

It is not to be supposed that in all these years Amasa the younger 
had been blind to the charms of other sex ; he had not " been with" 
ever}' girl who went to school with him, or whom he met at singing 
schools or spelling matches, or who smiled at him from her Sunday 
bonnet as he manfully "held up his end" in the village choir. 

He had been faithful always to the shy, delicate, dark-eyed little 
girl who was his school sweetheart, and now it was to Mary Peet he 
hastened to ask her to share his life and home. He had intended to 
take a farm on shares the next summer, and work his way slowh' up- 
ward to a place of his own ; now he had this hundred-acre farm, and 
to his great suprise he found $3,000 laid up in the bank at Feet's 
Mills, the slow savings of his father's fifty years. He began at once 
to set his house in order ; he longed to build a new one, but Mary's 
advice restrained him, so he did his best with this. The cellar he 
cleared and whitewashed with his own hands ; cleaned its one begrim- 
ed window and set two more, so that it was sweet and light ; the 
house was scrubbed from one end to the other ; a bonfire made of the 
old dirty confortables and quilts ; the kitchen repainted a soft yellow, 
and new windows, with clear, large glass, set in place of the dingy 
old sashes ; the wood-house was filled with dry wood and a good store 



155 

of pine cones and chopped brush for kindhng. A new milk-room 
was built, but a little way from the back dc^or, over a tiny brook that 
ran down the hill north of the Ijouse, and under the slatted floor kept 
up a cool draught of fresh air ; a covered passage connected it with 
the kitchen, and a door into the old milk-room made of that a con- 
venient pantry, while the removal of the old one from the kitchen 
corner gave to that apartment more air, room and light. Anew stove, 
with a set boiler, filled up the hearth of the old fireplace ; but fur- 
ther improvements Amasa left for Mary. 

A ditfei'ent home-coming from his mother's she had indeed, on just 
such a spring day as Wealthy came there. The kitchen shone clean 
and bright, a bowl of pink arbutus blossoms made its atmostphere 
freshly sweet, and the fire was laid ready for her to light, the shining 
tea-kettle filled, and the pantry held such stores as Amasa's masculine 
knowledge of household wants could suggest ; flour, butter, eggs, 
sugar, all were in abundance, and no feast of royalty ever gave more 
pleasure to its most honored guest than the hot biscuit Mary made and 
baked for their supper, the stewed dried apples, the rich old cheese, 
and the fragrant tea gave Amasa this happ}' evening. Next da}- 
they took their wedding trip to Feet's Mills in the new and sensible 
farm wagon Amasa had just bought, with a strong spirited horse to 
draw it. 

"I want you should look around, Mary," he said the night before, 
"and see what is needful here. I expect most everything is wanting 
and we can't lay out for finery. But first of all get what'll make 
your work easy. Your wedding present will come along to-morrow ; 
to-day we'll buy necessities." 

Mrs. Peet had not sent her only girl empty-handed to the new 
house. A good mattress, two pairs of blankets, fresh, light com- 
fortables, some cheap, neat, white spreads, a set of gay crockery, 
a clock, and a roll of bright ingrain carpeting had all come to the 
farm-house soon after the bride's arrival ; her ample supply of sheets 
and pillow-cases, strong towels, and a few table-cloths had been sent 
the day before, so this sort of thing was not needed ; but there was 
a new churn bought, and altogether new furnishings for the dairy, 
several modern inventions to make the work of a woman easier, a set 
of chairs, a table, and an easy lounge for the parlor, some cretone 
covered with apple blossoms and white thorn clusters, and pails, 
brooms, and tin-ware that would have made Wealthy a happy wo- 
man, crowded the over-full wagon before they turned homeward. 

The old house began to smile and blossom under this new dispen- 
sation, and the new mistress smiled too. 

Amasa milked the cows for her and lifted the heavy pails of milk 
to strain into the bright, new pans ; he filled the woodbox by the 
stove twice a day, put a patent pump into the old well, and, as it 
stood above the house, ran a pipe down into a sink set in the wood- 
shed, and so put an end to the drawing and carrying of water. 

The fat, round, placid pigs, that now enjoyed themselves in the 
new pen he took care of himself. 

"'Tain't work for women folks," he said. 



156 

"You've got enough to do, Mary ; there's the garden you'll have 
an eye on, and the chickens, if you're a mind to ; I'm going to build 
a hen-house and a yard to it right off, that'll be good enough for you 
as well as the chickens : and 1 want you should promise if any time 
the work gets a mite hefty and worries 3'ou, you'll speak right out. 
1 can artbrd to have everything else worn out rather than my wife." 

Really, it paid ! It does pay, my masculine friends, to give any 
woman a kindly word now and then ; if you had done it oftener, or 
your fathers had in the past, the lights of women never would have 
angered or bored you as they do now, or unsexed and made strident 
and clamorous that half of creation which is and always was unrea- 
sonable enough to have hungry hearts. Tr}- it and see. 

Amasa was wise above his generation; he had seen his mother 
sutler and learned a lesion. Mary never pined for kindly apprecia- 
tion of her work, or help in it. When she had a door cut through 
into the parlor, the stiff chairs and sofa banished, the flowery cur- 
tains hung at either window, the ga}^ carpet put down and the new 
furniture set in place, with her wedding present — an eas3', stutted 
rocker — drawn up to the table, on which lay two weekl}' papers and 
Harper's Magazine, she had still sense enough left to make this hith- 
erto sacred apartment into a real sitting room, where ever}' evening 
she and Amasa rested, read, or talked over the day's doings ; and 
when the first fat, rosy baby came and Mary was about again, it ad- 
ded another pleasure to have the old cradle beside them all the even- 
ing with its sleeping treasure. 

Can I tell in words what a sense of peace and cheer pervaded this 
household, in spite of some failures and troubles ? If the rye did blast 
one year, and the two best cows die another ; if a weasel once invad- 
ed the new and wonderful hen-house and slaughtered the best dozen 
Plymouth Rocks ; if sweeping storms wet the great ci'op of hay on 
the big meadow, or an ox break its leg in a post-hole ; still there was 
home to come back to, and a sensible, cheerful woman to look on the 
bright side of things when Amasa was discouraged. 

But, on the whole, things prospered ; and as Amasa heard the sweet 
laughter of his happy children, and met the calm smile of his wife, 
he could but look back on his mother's harassed and sad experi- 
ence, and give a heartfelt sigh to the difference between the two Mrs. 
Tuckers, unaware how much it was due to his own sense of justice 
and afl^ection. 

There are two. morals to this simple sketch, my friends : One is, 
the great use and necessity of taking an agricultural paper, and the 
other is the equal use and necessity of being good to your wives. 

Accept which you like oi need most. In the language of the 
ancient Romans : " Yon pays your money and you takes your choice." 



lo: 



MANUFACTURE OF BUTTER AND CHEESE 

BY 

THE NEW VACUUM PROCESS. 

By Dr. Hiram A. Cutting. 



Durinj^' the past three years, there has been developed by a sys- 
tem of carefully conducted experiments an entirely new method of 
treating milk for the manufacture of butter and cheese, which may 
be destined to become of the greatest practical value to the dairy in- 
terest generally. The especial feature of this system, which distin- 
guishes it entirely from all others, consists in treating milk with 
heat in vacuum. There were many difficulties in the way and ob- 
stacles to be overcome before the new system could be pronounced 
perfected, principal among which was the construction of an air- 
tight receiver of sufficient strength to resist the pressiire of the out- 
side air, and at the same time be simple and practical in its work- 
ings. Eeceivers are now built of iron or steel, either tin or porcelain 
lined, which are perfectly air-tight and in which milk may be set any 
length of time without absorbing any disagreeable flavor. The 
method of cooling the heated milk has also been greatly simplified. 
These receivers are built either singly or in pairs, and, having a 
capacity of 1000 to 2000 pounds each, are surrounded by a 
wooden jacket, with a space of three to five inches between it and 
the cylinder, for cold water and ice used in cooling the milk. 

The vacuum process for treating milk to be used in butter and 
cheese making, in its present state of development, consists of the 
following machinery: A heating tank, one or more air-tight receivers, 
surrounded by an otitside wooden jacket to contain cold water and 
ice, and an air-pump. The remaining machinery consists of cheese- 
vats, churns, and such other tools as are in use in ordinary factories. 
The receivers now in operation in the West, are built of tinned steel. 
They are cylindrical in form, nine feet in length by' two feet in diam- 
eter, holding 1500 pounds of milk to work easily. They are furnish- 
ed with an opening on top to receive the milk, sufficiently large to 
admit of easy cleansing, alsf) with a brass faucet at the bottom for 
drawing off the milk and cream. Another small opening at the top 
connects with the air-pump, for the purpose of exhausting the air 
and pumping off noxious vapors arising from the milk. All these 
openings are fitted so as to close air tight, so that when filled with 
milk, and the pump has finished its work of exhausting the air, the 
milk remains in vacuum diu-ing the entire time that the cream is rising. 

To treat milk by this process, on arrival at the factory it is con- 
ducted to the heating tank and there heated to between 100 and 150 
degrees. From this it passes directly to the vacuum receivers. 
These, as fast as filled, are closed air tight, and a valve connecting 
them with the air-pump is opened, and the air and vapors arising 
from the milk are drawn off. When a vacuum of twenty-seven to 
twenty-eight inches b}' the barometer, has been reached, the valve is 



158 ( 

closed and the milk remains in vacuum until the cream has risen. At 
the same time, cold water and ice are let into the wooden jacket sur- 
rounding the cylinders,and the temperature is quickly lowered to about 
forty-five degrees. By this sudden cooling, the pressure of the air be- 
ing removed, all the cream rises very quickly. When thishas been ac- 
complished, the milk is drawn off through the brass faucet at the 
bottom to the cheese-vat to be made into cheese. As soon as the 
cream starts, the conductor is changed to the churn or cream-vat, 
and the cream entirely drawn off. The receivers are then thoroughly 
cleansed and rinsed, when they are ready for use as before. 

CLAIMS. 

It is claimed for the vacuum process, first that as large a yield of 
butter can be obtained as by any other process. Second, that a finer 
quality can be produced than by any other method. All unpleasant 
odors and gases having been pumped from the milk, it possesses a 
fineness and delicacy of flavor that can be acquired in no other way. 
By reason of the butter globules being unbroken, its texture and 
keeping qualities are unsurpassed. In this respect it differs essent- 
ially from centrifugal butter, in which the fatty globules are so 
bruised and broken by their rapid passage thi'ough the milk, that, 
when churned, the butter is soft and salvy in texture and loses its 
flavor quickly. 

The skim-milk, by being treated in vacuum, when set with rennet 
for making into cheese, will be found to yield a much larger per- 
centage of cheese and that of better quality than ordinary skim- 
milk. This is owing to the fact that a considerable portion of the 
highly soluble caseine or other nitrogenous matter, which usually 
passes off in the whey, by the peculiar effect of the vacuum is 
rendered coagulable by the rennet and so retained in the cheese. 
Although this may seem incredible to some, still its truth has been 
proved beyond question by actual experiment many times repeated. 

The quality of the cheese is also largely increased, it being soft 
and digestible and consequently salable. It is well known that 
cheese made from, ordinary skim-milk, from which all the cream has 
been removed, is out of the market at the present time. 

In the manufacture of full cheese the vacuum method is especially 
useful. Besides the fact that it prevents the occurrence of floating 
curds by pumping off the gaseous impurity, it increases the yield 
by rendering the albumen coagulable, which, in its turn, absorbs the 
surplus fat, thereby preventing the large loss of that material, which 
by the usual method j^asses into the whey-vat. Thus is secured an 
increase in yield and at the same time increase of quality ; two 
points of vital importance. 

The vacuum process is in successful operation in a large creamery 
in St. Charles, Ills., operated by Messrs. Pembleton & Oatman 
Bros., where both butter and cheese are manfactured. In the July 
No. of " The Dairy World" published in Chicago, is given an account 
of a visit to that factory to see the vacuum process in operation, by 
a party consisting of Col. McGlincy, Sec. of the Elgin Board of 
Trade, Messrs. Hintz & Frederickson Bros., chemists from New 
York State, from which we quote : " It is claimed that by this pro- 



159 



cess they not only get all the butter out of the milk, but increase 
the yield of cheese from every one hundred pounds of milk, two 
pounds ; in the saving of that amount of albumen, this being incorpor- 
ated with the caseine. They claim not to use any chemical prep- 
aration in connection with the system and they might even increase 
this yield of cheese still more, but for the fact that a further in- 
orease of albumen causes the cheese to decay rapidly. 

Mr. Pembleton, the proprietor of the creamery, says "that 
.it was only after close investigation that he adopted this system, 
which he considers as much ahead of the centrifugal machines as 
the latter are ahead of the older systems." 

The following is a summary of experiments made during the season 
of 1884, showing the yield per hundred, of milk, of butter and cheese. 



Date. 


CM 


Pounds 
Butter. 


Pounds 

Cheese. 


Pounds 

Butter 

per hundred 

Milk. 


Pounds 

Cheese 

per hundred 

Milk. 


Total 
product. 


June 


22, 


1058 


38it 


82 A 


3.65 


7.79 


11.45 


'( 


27, 


1297 


53i| 


90tV 


4.15 


6.95 


11.11 


July 


4, 


1404 


53 


101 


3.77 


7.19 


10.97 


ii. 


18, 


779 


30T| 


51t\ 


3.94 


6.61 


10.55 


'( 


25, 


698 


29tI 


53 


4.226 


7.593 


11.819 


u 


28, 


812 


31tV 


65}f 


3.88 


8.09 


11.98 


ii 


31, 


903 


34iJ 


63 


3.84 


6.97 


10.81 


August 


1. 


700 


30 1% 


55 


4.366 


7.827 


12.223 


1 1 


2, 


702 


27]i 


52 1% 


3.97 


7.46 


11.43 


u 


0, 


676 


22A 


52i| 


3.30 


7.80 


11.10 


Sept. 


13, 


565 


26 


50t^6 


4.60 


8.88 


13.48 


>> 


u. 


590 


28t"f 


47A 


4.766 


8.05 


12.816 


a 


15, 


577 


24tV 


54 


4.202 


9.359 


13.561 


October 


5, 


833 


34t=V 


71 


4.10 


8.52 


12.62 


a 


9, 


774 


24 


671:1 


3.10 


8.74 


11.84 


(( 


10, 


568 


19A 


53 A 


3.39 


9.37 


12.76 


u 


11,^ 


581 


20tV 


52^^ 


3.45 


8.97 


12.42 


a 


12, 


500 


24t«^ 


55 


4.875 


11. 


15.875 


a 


14, 


486 


16if 


65 


3.446 


13.16 


16.606 


it 


15, 


619 


^Or\ 


64 


3.25 


10.33 


13.59 


11 


18, 


851 


42f^ 




4.98 






Nov. 


13, 


784 


31?i 


73t^6 


4.033 


9.375 


13.408 


i( 


15, 


109 


7tV 




6.479 








26, 

27, 


1168 
1177 


47 
45A 


1-352 


4.02 
3.90 


1 10.74 




a 


28, 


1136 


44|| 


132 


3.93 


11.61 


15.54 


14 


29, 


664 


^^h 


78 


3.944 


11,146 


15.690 


The last four days. 


4145 


1G3^\ 


462 


3.944 


15.09 



Average of 27 tests butter, 4.057 pounds per hundred milk. 
Average of 25 tests cheese, 8.996 pounds per hundred milk. 
Total product of 35 tests butter and cheese, 12.923 pounds per hundred. 



160 

The following is a summary of a series of carefully conducted 
experiments for the season of 1884, from native cows' milk, from 
August 1st: 

General average per hundred pounds milk in Augjist ; 

Pounds Butter, 3.88 ; pounds Cheese, 7.73 ; Total product, 11.61 poiuids. 
General average per hundred povnidsniilk in September; 

Poiuids Butter, 4.52; pounds Cheese, 8.76. Total product, 13.28 pounds. 
General average per hundred pounds milk in October ; . 

Pounds Butter, 3.82; pounds Cheese, 10.01. Total product, 13.83 pounds. 
General average per hundred pounds milk in November ; 

Pounds Butter, 4.38 ; pounds Cheese. 10.87. Total product, 14.80 poimds. 
There were also two tests made for hutter alone, one from Jersey milk, the 
other Native (jows' milk, on pasture feed, which gave : Native milk, per 
hundred, 4.98 pounds ; Jersey milk, per hundred, 6.48 pounds. 

I have no reason to doubt the statement of tests made. 

Hearing so much in favor of it, I embraced an opportunity offered 
to inspect the entire process, and can say that I am not only favor- 
ably impresii'ed, but feel that it may largely revolutionize the factory 
methods of butter-making. 

The process is a combination of two previous methods tried long 
ago. These were the rapid heating of the milk in the open air, to 
drive off all odors, and the raising of the cream while cooling, and 
the vacuum process, so called, by which the cream was raised in the 
churn, which was also defective. This combination seems to remedy 
previous defects and, as far as I can see, commends itself to the pro- 
ducers of butter and cheese. 

1. It can be advantageoirsly used in the warmest as well 
as coldest weather. 

2. It requires less expenditure of ice than most methods of 
setting, as the whole cream raising process is done while the milk is 
cooling. 

3. The butter is of the best quality, and the cheese desirable. 

4. The work is much less, hence the cost is in every way de 
creased. 

I believe it worth while for those interested in factories, to ex- 
amine fully this method, as, if it is all it promises, it is the desirable 
means whereby the best results may be accomplished. 

Address the Powell Manufacturing Company, Burlington, Vi, 
for further particulars. • 



161 



[PRINTED BY DIRECTION OF THE GOVERNOR.] 

REPORT TO GOV. SAMUEL E. PINGREE, 

UPON THE CATTLE DISEASES AT CAMBRIDGE, AND REMARKS 

THEREON. 

By Dr. Hiram A. Cutting. 



To His Excellency, SAMUEL E. PINGREE, 

Governor of Vermont. 
Sir: — Agreeable to 3-our direction, I visited Cambridge, Vt., Jan- 
uary 6th, 1885, and, as you require immediate report, I send this pre- 
liminary statement this evening, to be followed by further facts as 
fast as I am able to obtain them by microscopic investigation or 
otherwise. 

THE OUTBREAK 

was in the herd of William Prentice of Cambridge, who moved into 
town from Milton about one year ago. He had a herd of thirty-six 
head, a part of which he brought with him, and a part of which he 
purchased in the vicinity, but no recent purchases had been made. 
On December 5th, one of his oxen was taken purging severeh'. This 
purging was worse at commencement, but continued up to the time 
of his death. The last day it was a blood}' discharge. He died the 
third day. The 8th, a cow was taken, the 12th, two more, and so at 
intervals of two or three days until one 3'oke of oxen, twelve cows 
and one bull have been taken. Ten have died and two have been 
killed a few hours before death to gain better advantage from a post- 
tnortem^ and three of the sick, having lived beyond the ominous three 
da3's, may possibly recover. Two of them have died within forly- 
eight hours from the first symptom of sickness. 

SYMPTOMS. 

Great heat in the head, staring coat, eyes and e3'e-lids red and 
slightl}' swollen, weeping constantly. They lie down for a time and 
then stand. When standing the head is moved slowly from one side 
to the other, with nose slightly extended. Much mucous runs from 
the nose, and breathing increased about one-third in frequency, being 
labored and with some noise in the nostrils. No appetite, and but 
little water is taken. Cows give usual amount of milk up to the 
hour of sickness, and then rapidly shrink, becoming dr}- in about 
twent\'-four hours. They almost entirely lose their sight in the same 
time. Those still living are nearly or quite blind, the iris of the eye 
becoming milky in appearance, the white shreds extending over the 
entire dark surface, the white of the eye being quite red. In some 
there has been purging, as in the first case, but in others the bowels 
have remained in good condition, but the head symptoms are con- 



162 

stant. They die insane and with spasms, having a bad smell as soon 
as dead. As the sickness increases they drop their head quite low, 
but retain the slight elevation of the nose. The indications are that 
there is great pain in the head from beginning to end. 

TREATMENT. 

Mr. Prentice treated the first, giving soot mixed with boiled flour, 
charcoal, tea made from hemlock bark, etc. The animals thus treated 
were taken scouring, and the medicine given seemed to pass through 
the s^'stem without anj' change. More recent eases have not scoured 
as the first did. Mr. Prentice then obtained the services of Frank M. 
Nichols, of St. Albans, a man of considerable repute as a farrier and 
cattle doctor, though m^' confidence was shaken in his ability by his 
refusal to divulge his treatment. From observation I should pre- 
sume he did no damage, and the death rate did not denote much suc- 
cess. The medicine he called homoeopathic, and gave fifteen drops 
now and then on the tongue. I noticed his trunks of medicine had 
an^'thing but a homoeopathic smell, and were suggestive of aloes and 
other medicines usually dealt out b}' the cattle doctor. As those I 
saw sick did not and had not purged, and as the secretions of their 
kidne3'S and bowels were normal, I recommended pulverized lobelia 
to be blown up the nostrils to clear the nasal passages, oil to be put 
on the top of the head where so hot, and warm embrocations to be 
put about the throat when it seemed that soreness there prevented 
deglutition. 

SANITARY CONDITIONS. 

I found the stables well ventilated, whitewashed, and with proper 
disinfectants used. Nichols seemed careful and trustworthy here. 
But the sick were in the same barn with the well, and I recommended, 
as there were two barns some thirty rods apart, that the sick and con- 
valescent be put in one, and the well in the other, as most conducive 
to the health of the survivors. 

POST-MORTEMS. 

Dr. Nichols found tongue, throat and head diseased, food in stom- 
ach hard and dry, intestines red, filled with mucous and putrescent. 
In some there was ulceration. One first killed bowels not bad, but 
tongue, throat and head diseased. Examination b}' myself was of a 
two-year-old bull killed. Internal organs of the chest and abdomen 
all found to be healthful, as far as I could see. Parts were reserved 
for microscopic examination. Blood coagulated immediately after 
leaving the bod3^ Throat showing some inflammation. Nasal cavi- 
ties in high state of inflammation. Brain congested and j-ellowish, 
softened in parts of the white substance. Blood clot in brain, but 
probably the result of the concussion when knocked down. Optic 
nerve diseased and eye whitish and opaque like all. Temperature 
before death taken bj^ Dr. Nichols, 105^ degrees ; pulse, 93. 

W^ATER FOR HERD. 

This is supplied from springs and appears to be unexceptionable. 
Surroundings, as far as can be seen, dry and all right. 



163 



This was corn fodder, early cut oats, unthreshed, and early cut hay ; 
being a good mixture of clover, herdsgrass and red top, well cured 
and free from dust. Chaff collected for examination for ergot and 
other fungi. 

CHARACTER OF DISEASE. 

This disease has everj- characteristic of an epizootic, and not of 
contagion. They have not been taken sick in classes at regular in- 
tervals, but almost every day. It is liable to spread as all epizootic 
diseases are, and may result in a certain amount of contagion which 
has not 3'et developed. History tells us that it has often been a reg- 
ular pestilence, and yet oftener is confined to a few outbreaks. Its 
fatalit}' will doubtless diminish. The nearest description I find to 
this occurred a few years since at Portage county, Ohio, and gradu- 
ally subsided. It was supposed that it originated from ergot in June 
grass. Further examination is needed to determine this, as no close 
examination has yet been made of the chaff from the hay fed here. 

FUTURE EXAMINATION. 

I would respectfully report further that I have examined the ha}' 
and find but little ergot, not enough to do any injuiT. The micro- 
scopic examination confirms all I wrote you, and shows in addition 
that the lung contains numerous stronr/yli micrurus, which doubtless 
caused the outbreak, and the enfeebled condition and predisposition 
to take cold rendered a cold fatal and probable. I think the actual 
loss b}' death nearly over, but his whole herd of cattle are of course 
diseased and liable to contaminate all they come in contact with. I 
do not think this strongyli the whole cause of death, but that the 
weather that predisposes to influenza caused, with these worms, such 
an inflammation as affected the brain ; yet why it did not cause pneu- 
monia instead, is indeed a m3'^stery. A cold usually does, but the 
peculiar winter must have an effect, as I cannot account for disease 
of brain otherwise. I believe the great fatality in that herd ended, 
but the greatest care is needed not to contaminate other cattle. Man}' 
young cattle die of the worms only, as it is a dangerous disease. 
Mortality in this herd seemed confined to the youngest cattle. 

REPORT UPON THE STRONGYLUS MICRURUS. 

Having been requested by the Vermont Medical Society, at their 
annual meeting in 1880, to investigate and report upon an outbreak 
of pleuro-pneumonia at Fairlee, Vt., a part of which report 1 here 
give, I would first state the case as presented before the society. 
August 1st, 1880, Gardner S. Melendy, of Fairlee, purchased, in 
Cambridge, Underbill, Fairfield and Fletcher, forty-three calves and 
thirty - three yearlings, many of them being purchased near the 
Prentice farm in Cambridge. 

Driving them home (he arrived August 14th), they were turned 
into a mowing lot near his house, a dry upland, with good feed. Af- 
ter a few days he drove twenty to a pasture a mile away, and ten in- 
to a pasture two miles away, and a week later he put twenty-five 



164 

calves into a mowing field on the same farm. On September 8th, he 
found a yearling sick in the pasture and drove him home. His e_yes 
were sore and running, as were also his nose and mouth ; respiration 
rapid, with frequent coughing, discharging, when he coughed, much 
offensive matter. This yearling lived until the 12th, when he died. 
A week later a calf in the home field was likewise taken sick, having 
the same symtoms for four days, and died. A week later he was told 
that a yearling was dead in the pasture, which he found true, and 
that several more were coughing, and a few days later others had 
died. October 8th, six had died, and eighteen more had the disease. 
At this time he was alarmed, and it seems from good cause, and Mr. 
O. M. Tinkham made a post-mortem examination, and found the lungs 
badly congested and the air passages filled with small white thread- 
worms from one to two inches in length, and that their number was 
countless. This proved to be the strongylus micrunxs, and is the en- 
tire cause of the disease. It is described by Cobbold, and is alluded 
to by Siebold in his work on entozoa. In 1833 there was a curious 
epidemic from this cause in England, destroying many cattle, especi- 
allv calves and yearlings. A description of the same may be found 
in the Veterinarian, volume 6. In Guy's hospital rei)ort for 1836 
the disease is described as causing symtoms exactly identical with 
what occurred at Fairlee, and thousands of cattle died. In 1840 
they were found by Wyman infesting cattle, in Connecticut, and were 
confounded with strongyhis Jilaria, a similar worm infesting the lungs 
ot sheep. His description may be found in the American Journal of 
Science, volume 39. In 1843 J. B. Simonds described an epidemic 
among young cattle caused by worms in bronchi, which were also 
found in the bladder and intestines, with symptoms exactly as found 
in our case. His paper was published in " Transactions of the 
Veterinary Medical Association," published for that year. 

In 1845 calves and young cattle died from this disease in France, 
under the same symptoms. It was epidemic and incurable, and thou- 
sands perished. 

In 1848 it was equally epidemic in England, and is described in 
volume 21 of the Veterinarian. But great benefit was derived from 
nasal inhalation of either, chloroform, oil of turpentine and rectified 
oil of amber. 

In 1649 it was described by J. G. Sandie, who says the same par- 
asite infests sheep. 

It was again epidemic in 18.51, and benefit was derived from inha- 
lation of sulphuric acid vapor, and from taking oil of turpentine in 
one-ounce doses. 

In 1868 this disease was first observed in New York. It broke 
out in a herd belonging to Mr. Wood of Woodville. His herd was 
isolated, and the infected kept away from others. The disease was 
controlled in that place only to break out with great violence in Alle- 
ghany county, New York, in 1870. The cases were examined by 
Thomas L. Harrison, secretary of the state agricultural society, and 
an interesting account of them was published in the journal of that 
society in 1871. 

In the same vear there was another outbreak of this parasitic dis- 



165 

ease in Seneca county. Several cases were fatal, but as the authori- 
ties had full control and all cattle belonging to infected herds were 
isolated, it did not spread to any extent. It was, however, noticed 
that all the poultry upon the farm died from "■ gapes," showing that 
this species of worm, if not identical with the species causing " gapes" 
in chickens, is at least capable of doing the mischief. 

But without referring further to special cases, 1 would sa^- that it 
is the great cattle plague of Holland and Germany, as well as Eng- 
land and France, and some authorities sa}' that in the low meadows 
of Hammersmith, England, where cattle do not thrive, even donkeys 
which feed there have numerous specimens in their lungs when killed, 
and the pheasants in that vicinity nearly all die with the "gapes." 

It would be supposed that so fearful and often incurable a disease 
would have a history of its rise and progress ; but such is hardly true 
of this parasite, and even its habits are not well understood. In Eng- 
land it is said to have originated in Cuba, while here it is spoken of 
as a disease of European origin. Some say one thing of the parasite, 
and others talk or write exactly opposite. Some say it is more likely 
to be epidemic in a wet season, others in a dry one, and while I show 
full deference to authority, I shall describe the strongylus micrurus as 
appears evident to me to exist in this section. 1 first became ac- 
quainted with them by finding them about sedge roots in wet ground, 
as microscopic worms. I am not sure upon what they feed, but 
have noticed a fine brown sediment in their intestines, which I be- 
lieve to be vegetable matter, though they thrive best, producing most 
and growing the largest, when in the bronchial tubes of the calf. I 
have no doubt but that they attack the ox, horse, mule and poultry, 
as well as most wild animals, but the great fatality is among cattle. 
The numerous cases of ''heaves" in horses, unaccounted for by over- 
draft or other disease, may largely owe to this worm their commence- 
ment. 

FROM VERMONT TO NEVT HAMPSHIRE. 

This disease was carried from Vermont to New Hampshire in 1885 
and I publish the report of Dr. Irving A. Watson, secretary of the 
State Board of Health, upon the cattle diseases at Strafford, which 
was as follows : 

About the middle of last month, February, I received information 
by telephone that a disease had appeared among a herd of calves 
owned by Mr. W. Everett Hill of Strafford, and that nine had 
alrieady died. A day or two subsequent to this, I made a visit to 
the localit}- for the purpose qf learning the character of the disease, 
and to investigate, as far as possible, all the circumstances in the 
case. I found about fifteen calves sick at a barn on a farm which 
Mr. Hill owns a mile or so from his home place. The following his- 
tory was obtained : In October last a gentleman living in Strafford 
went to northern Vermont, and bought a herd of fifty-two calves and 
brought them by rail to Penacook, from which place they were driven 
to Strafford. Out of this herd Mr. Hill purchased thirty, and imme- 
diately put them into a field of good fall feed. The balance of the 
herd was disposed of, so far as could be traced, in the towns of Straf- 



166 

ford, Northwood and Barnstead. Out of the thirty which Mr. Hill 
bought he subsequently sold, or traded, nine, one of which died in a 
week or two. Very soon after the purchase it was noticed that one 
or two of the calves did not appear well, and in a few weeks it was 
noticed that most, if not all, of them were ailing. The first death oc- 
curred in December, and the others at intervals of about two weeks. 

APPEARANCE. 

The symptoms were such as to lead an attending veterinarian to 
believe it Was anthrax, or blackleg. The calves were much emaciat- 
ed, hair rough, eyes dull, slight nasal discharge, some cough, acceler- 
ated pulse with swelling of legs, especially about the ankles. In one 
instance an open sore appeared at the ankle joint. In one or two 
cases death was sudden without any appearance of prior sickness. 
Indurations were felt under the skin along the neck. As the animals 
were frozen solid, there was no opportunity to make a post-mortem 
examination. The owner was informed that every indication pointed 
to an infectious disease, and was ordered to bur}' at once all the dead 
animals, and to keep his entire stock secluded from all others. The 
selectmen of the town were directed to quarrantine the cases, as pro- 
vided by law, and to take every precaution necessary to isolate the 
disease. 

Dr. H. A. Cutting of Vermont was conferred with, and gave di- 
rections for examination of their lungs, as he believed it was strongy- 
lus micrurus. 

A SECOND VISIT 

was made to the herd March 14th. Six more had died making in all 
fifteen deaths, which had reduced the infected lot of calves to nine. 
These appeared as upon my first visit, except that they were more 
debilitated if an3'thing, being poor and standing with feet much near- 
er together than natural. All coughed and had a discharge from the 
nose. A scaly condition of the nose just at the edgeof the hair,hav- 
ing a scrofulous appearance, was noticed in every case. Inquiry 
showed that the calves had been well cared for during the entire win- 
ter, and in addition to all the hay they required, about four quarts of 
shorts was fed to each, daily, through the winter. They have also 
had an occasional feed of potatoes and a little corn. 

Good ventilation has been constantly assured b}' reason of many 
cracks caused by the shrinkage of the boards of the barn, yet they 
were reasonably protected from the cold by the situation of the pen 
or stalls. This disease was correctly diagnosed through a post-mor- 
tem examination of one of the creatures on Saturday, March 14th. 

The cause of the disease is a parasite infecting the lung, known 
technically as the strongylus micrxirus. The disease might in com- 
mon parlance be called the "lung- worm disease," and is of a very in- 
fectious and contagious character. So far as I can ascertain, these 
are the first cases positively known in the State, and the matter be- 
comes of great importance, inasmuch as it is possible that other herds 
in Strafford, Northwood and Barnstead, are already affected. 



167 



POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION. 



The post-mortem examination was made npononeof the best look- 
ing calves in the lot, which was selected for the purpose and killed 
by a single blow without bleeding. A portion of the body was 
skinned, including one hind leg. At the ankle andgambrel joint the 
tissues were found infiltrated with serum and extravasated blood, 
showing that the blood vessels at these points had given way or be- 
come so degenerated as to allow the serum and blood to escape into 
the surrounding tissue. The contents of the abdominal cavity ap- 
peared to be normal, with the exception of a general anaemic ap- 
pearance. Upon opening into the thoracic cavit}' a small amount of 
fluid (serum) was found. In the pericardium (heart-sack) there 
was a large amount of fluid. The heart was in all respects normal, 
the valves perfect and the substance firm and natural. The lungs 
at once attracted attention b}' having the appearance of a lung af- 
fected with pneumonia. There were hepatizations almost precisely 
resembling the latter disease. Upon cutting into the lung, after its 
careful removal, a large portion was found to be indurated and sol- 
idified, presenting nodules of varying consistency. This condition 
was brought about through a probably low grade of inflammatory 
action caused bj- the parasite, in which lymph was thrown out so as 
to occlude the air cells. This condition was found in spots varying 
from the size of a pea to portions half as large as the hand. Upon 
cutting across some of the bronchi, or lung tubes, these worms were 
discovered — some of the tubes being literally filled with them, and 
they could be taken out in rolls of probably a dozen or more. These 
pests had evidentl}' made a slow progressive attack upon the lungs 
and the animals had been failing in an exact ratio to the progress 
made b}' the parasitic disease in the lungs. The gradual loss of 
of healthy lung surface had, through the lessened aeration of the 
blood and the reflex action, produced b}- the constant irritation, 
caused the constitutional disturbances mentioned above. 

NATURE OF THE DISEASE. 

The parasite which produces the disease is the sirongylus micrurus. 
There are other varieties of the same 'family, as the strunc/ylus Jilaria, 
which infests the lungs of sheep and which has proven a. very serious 
disease in England ; the strongylus elongatus equally fatal in the 
hog. Another variety of this family known as the strongylus eontor- 
txis or lovibriz, has for its habitat the fourth stomach of the sheep and 
causes great destruction in some seasons in the Southwest. The 
strongylus long evaginatus was found in the lung of a boy by Dr. Jort- 
sits at Clausenburg, and Ziemssen reports this as the onl^' case on 
record. 

The variet}^ which causes the disease under consideration, when 
full-grown, is a thread-like worm about the size of a fine sewing- 
needle, the females, however, reaching a length of two inches or 
more, while the males are somewhat shorter — from an inch to an inch 
and a half. Their most congenial habitat seems to be the bronchial 
tubes of the calf, extending into the ramifiations of the bronchi, even 



168 

into the tubes that are so small that a single worm will completel}' 
occlude them. The eggs are deposited in these tul)es in great num- 
bers, and through the coughing of the infected animal the nasal 
discharges are deposited in the feed, in the stalls or watering-troughs, 
about the yard, field, or wherever the creature maybe. If deposited 
where there is moisture, as in the watering-trough, wetlands, or on 
the grass that is wet b}' rain or dew, they hatch in a few hours. Dr. 
H. A. Cutting, of the State Board of Agriculture of Vermont, hatched 
the eggs, experimentall}', in water in two hours, even after they had 
been kept in glycerine for two weeks. On the other hand it is 
said that if the eggs are deposited in a dry jilace they will become 
perfectly dr}', and retain their vitalit}' for an indefinite period (in one 
instance for three years), ready to spring into life at the first favor- 
able opportunity. 

The embryo of this parasite is taken with the food or drink into the 
stomach of the animal, from whence it makes its way directh' through 
the walls of the stomach into the circulation, and reaching the lungs 
becomes enc^'sted in its substance, where it ma}' remain a considera- 
ble length of time before maturing. The eggs are sometimes depos- 
ited in a sack or cyst in the lung tissue as well as in the bronchial 
tubes, and are subsequently hatched, adding colony after colony to 
perhaps the already great numbers that are making an attack upon 
every portion of the lungs. 

When the females are dislodged from the lung, as in the act of 
coughing, they are filled with thousands of eggs which, whether being 
immersed in water or dried, retain their life and are ever ready to 
infect other cattle. They live in water or about the moist roots of 
grass for a long time after being hatched. 

Thus it will be seen that the disease is a very difficult one to erad- 
icate, and it is a matter of much public concern, especiall}- to the 
stock-producing portion of the community. No one knows when a 
locality once infected will again be free from a liability to this dis- 
ease. It may live in the water supply, the moisture of the yard, the 
soil, or in the impalpable dust of the stable. 

WHERE THE DISEASE CAME FROM. 

There is no doubt that the disease was brought from "Vermont, the 
purchaser making, it is stated, his headquarters while buying at or 
near St. Albans, which is in the mfected district, and near the towns 
of Cambridge, Uuderhill, Fairfield and Fletcher. 

WHAT VERMONT SHOULD DO. 

Is there any doubt but what this state should provide, through a 
contingent fund in the hands of the governor or otherwise, for the 
proper management of this and other dangerous diseases? But we 
leave it in the hands of the legislature, for "a word to the wise is 
sufficient." 



169 



FARMIING TOOLS AND OTHER IMPLEMENTS. 



Man}- farming tools have been examined and tested tlie past two 
3-ears, and it is onlj' just to tlie farmers that I report upon such as 
seem best for the money, as all do not have a chance to try various 
kinds before purchasing. 

FORCE PUMPS. 





The garden force pump is today almost an indispensable article on 
the farm and in the garden, as it is used for so many purposes. To 
spray trees with liquid insect destroyers, to water gardens, to wash 
carriages and windows, and though I mention it last but not the least 
of its value, is to quench fires. Many a farm-house has been saved 
by the convenient hand force pump. After using various patterns, I 
am free to say that the most convenient one 1 ever used is what is 
called the Huntington pump, manufactured by the Challenge Pump 
Co., Swanton, Vt. 

WARM WATER TANK FOR CATTLE. 




170 



All farmers, I think, concede the fact that ice cold water in winter 
is not desirable for stock, especially for milch cows. Various devices 
have been made and several have been patented, whereby the water 
for cattle may be warmed in the tank or trough from which they 
drink. Last winter I experimented with one made by Adams & 
Haynes of Wilmington, Vt., and I find it a success. Cobs soaked in 
kerosene oil answered best in my experiments as fuel, but fine wood 
or kerosene oil and sawdust did finely, and though the tank I had 
was a large one, from fifteen to twenty minutes were sufficient to warm 
the water sufficiently, even when it was frozen over ; and that, too, 
without danger from fire. This heater can be put into a trough made 
on the premises, or they manufacture and sell the entire arrangement 
all complete. Their prices range low for the worth. It is indeed a 
valuable acquirement. Other parties manufacture something for the 
same purpose, but as none have seemed willing I should test their 
heaters with this, as I have asked them to do, I feel as though the 
one I have used was probably as good, if not better than any other. 

POTATO DIGGER AND SHOVEL PLOW. 




When I was a boy, a cast iron shovel blade like the shovel culti- 
vator was cast with slots running through it, yet none coming out at 
the edge, and called a potato digger. Though it was so simple it 
really was quite a digger, yet it did not sell and few were made. 
Last year there came to my notice a combined shovel plow and pota- 
to digger that seemed a well devised improvement on the potato 
digger of my boyhood. I ordered one, and by use I find it a success. 
This implement, though very simple in appearance is, I believe, as 
near perfect as can be attained and come wilhin the reach of every 
farmer. By the changing of one bolt it may be converted either into 
a shovel plow or a potato digger. The fingers are adjustable, being 
held in position by the plow point. Thus, in case of breakage, a new 
part may be inserted without the expense of a whole new head. The 



171 



fingers, points and wings are made of steel, rendering it light, strong 
and durable. 

It is designed for the various kinds of soil. When sandy it works 
best as shipped from the factor3\ But when the soil is loam and 
heavy, changes become necessary to insure success in its working. 
Full directions are with every digger, showing how those changes are 
made. As a shovel plow it is valuable for cultivating all kinds of 
crops that are planted in rows or drills. 

The wings and points are made of steel, polished and ground sharp. 
The wings are twisted in the shape of the mould-board of an ordi- 
nar}^ plow, and in operation turn off the loose, mellow soil toward 
the plants, and against them if desired. The wings are adjustable, 
can be opened or closed to throw off more or less earth, and to 
adapt them to rows of greater or less distance apart. 

For weeding, and when it is not desired to make any furrow or 
throw an}' soil against the plants, the wings should be changed or 
reversed. The soil then is not thrown to the sides, but passes over 
the plow, and is left in a pulverized and loose state, and as the wings 
present a sharp, cutting edge, it thoroughly cuts up all grass and 
weeds. The depth of the cut is regulated by the raising or lowering 
of the wheel and draft hook. 

The handles are adjustable to a tall or short man. I find also that 
the Yankee Swivel Plow is one of the best swivel plows made, or at 
least is very desirable. Both are manufactured by the Belcher & 
Ta^'lor Agricultural Tool Co., Chicopee Falls, Mass. 



THE buc?:eye mower. 




Like sewing machines many mowers do good work, and it is 
natural that ever}' man owning and using any special machine 
should think his the best. I have had many inquiries about those 
machines, and so I feel I was expected in some way to decide. At 
least I wanted the best myself. After various tests on draft and 
work,. especially on rough ground, I settled on the Buckeye, manu- 
factured by the Richardson Manufacturing Co., Worcester, Mass., 
and my men as well as myself are satisfied with it. I believe it one 
of the best mowing machines in market. 



172 



HAMMOND S SLUG SHOT. 



In this time of insect war, when every man must be a warrior and 
use the best thing possible to defeat the common enemy, I believe all 
are interested in knowing what is effective. I find the Slug Shot, 
manufactured by Benjamin Hammond, Fishkill on Hudson, N. Y., a 
valuable insect destroyer. It is cheap and efficient. If not entirely 
harmless to man and animal, so near so that in its use there is no danger, 
as there is from Paris green and other virulent poisons. I have given 
directions how a valuable insectator can be manufactured, but I am 
aware that few will manufacture for themselves, hence if purchases are 
made it is desirable to buy the best. In case of purchasing I think 
the "Slug Shot" a reliai)le and efficient insect destroj'er. 

THE YELLOW DOCK PULLER. 

The yellow dock, a noxious weed, seems increasing in the state, 
and it is one of the hardest to eradicate from meadows of an}^ I am 
acquainted with. I accidentally found a forked instrument some- 
thing like the claw of a hammer, only it has a fulcrum and a spade 
handle. It can be crowded down one side of the root and fetch it 
ever}^ time, and to me is a valuable acquisition. It will also take 
out the burdock and all roots of like character. I have no knowledge 
of the manufacturer, and cannot tell where it can be purchased, but 
I advise farmers having such roots in their land to be on the lookout 
for one. 



INDEX. 



Acer 46 

Acts of planted seeds jg 

Adaptation of trees to different situations Ig 

Advantages of vacuum process J5g 

Age of trees by grains 4j 

Alder '.'."sg^ g3 

Alnus go 

Amelanchier ^q 

American elm ^o 

American linden , 44 

Ammonite, analysis of j jg 

Amount of sap-flow y^ 

Ampelopsis 44 

Analysis of fertilizers I33 jgg 

" ' " 117 



of fertilizino; material. 



of maple sap 80, 95 



of " sugrar 



83 



of " syrups 83 

" of stable manures jjO 

' ' of woods 27 

Andromeda ^^ 

Apple pomace, analysis of. 121 



Arrow- wood. 



53 



Ash gy 

Ashes, worth of. 124 

Aspen g^ 

Average yield of sugar from maple groves 200 

Basswood a a 

Bastard maple ^j 

Ber beris ^3 

Better arrangements 255 

Betula g2 

Birch ; ; '. g2 

Bird-cherrj' ^8 

Blackberry 4^ 

Black birch g2 

" cherry * 43 

" hickory 59 

" spruce , gy 

Blueberrj' gg 

Boiling sugar 74 

Boneblack, analysis of 1 29 



174 

Brown ash 57 

Buckej'e mower 171 

Buckthorn 44 

Butter-hickory 59 

Butter-making by A'acuum process 157 

Butternut 58 

Cambridge cattle-disease, outbreak of ' 161 

Canada plum 48 

Capital in lumber business 26 

Care of 3^oung trees 34 

Carga 59 

Carpinus 61 

Cassanda 55 

Castanea 61 

Cattle-disease at Cambridge 161 

" " epidemic 164 

Cattle-disease in New Hampshire 165 

' ' "■ report on 161 

Ceanothus 44 

Cedar 68 . 

Celastrus 44 

Celtis 58 

Cephalanthus 54 

Champion evaporator 74 

Character of cattle-disease at Cambridge 163 

Chestnut 61 

Choke-berry 48 

Choke cherry 48 

Climbing bitter-sweet 44 

Commercial fertilizers, value of 129 

Common barberry 43 

Common salt 113 

Composition of maple sap 79 

Composting by hogs 116 

Comptonia 62 

Constituents of maple sap 97 

Cotton-seed meal, analysis of 120 

Cornus 52 

Corylus 61 

Cradagus r 50 

Cranberry 54 

Culture and management of our native forests 17 

C ulture, when seeds grow 36 

Currants 51 

Decrease of water 5 

Demand and price of lumber ... 25 

Diervilla • • • 53 

Dogwood 52 

Dwarf cherry 48 



175 

Effect of cutting forests 4 

Etfect on maple trees to tap 91 

Elder 53 

Elm 58 

Experimental farm work 104 

Elxperiments, results of - 127 

" manner of conducting 126 

' ' on maples 75 

Export of lumber 27 

Facts about trees 71 

Fagus 60 

Farmer's family 149 

food 148 

' ' girl runs away 153 

Farming tools and other implements 169 

Fertilizers, gain and loss determined V/8 

'' manner of application of 125 

Fertilizing maples 75 

Fir 67 

Fish-waste, anal^'sis of 117 

Food for farmers 148 

Force-pump 169 

Forest commissions 5 

" " of New Hampshire. . -. 6 

" economy necessary 25 

' ' of Vermont 3 

Fox-grape 43 

Fraxinus 57 

Fuel, value of wood for 42 

Gain and loss by use of fertilizers 128 

Gaylussacia 54 

Gooseberry 51 

Governor Furnas on age of trees 41 

Graphical chart 7 

Gray birch 62 

Great profits of timber investments 13 

" " of tree culture 14 

Ground bone, analysis of 118? 120 

" hemlock 69 

" horn 118 

Hackberry 58 

Hamamelis 51 

Hammond's slug shot 172 

Hardback 49 

Hardships of farmers' wives 150 

Hazel 61 

Hemlock 68 

Hen-manure 108 



176 

High cranberry 54 

Home-made fertilizers, how made 121 

Hone3^suckle 53 

Hornbeam 52 

How to obtain seeds of trees 69 

Ilex 56 

Injury by wind 24 

Juglans 58 

Juniperus 68 

Kainit 115 

Kalmia 56 

Kieserite, crude 113 

Land plaster and analysis Ill, 112 

Larix 68 

Laws to protect forests 70 

Lever-wood 61 

Lime, analysis of 117 

Lindera 58 

Lists of maples, experiments on 91, 92, 93, 

Locust-trees 47 

Logging in Essex county 27 

Lonicera 53 

Lumber, demand and price of 25 

' ' exports of 27 

Manner of application of fertilizers 125 

Manufacture of maple sugar 101 

Manure at surface 125 

" from night-soils 105 

' ' on the farm 105 

Manuring maples 75 

Maple flavor from butternuts 82 

" sap, analj'sis of 80 

" sugar, analysis of 83 

" sugar industry 72 

" S3'rups, analj'sis of 83 

Meteorological conditions best for sap-flow 89 

Mrs. Tucker dies , 154 

Moose-wood 47, 58 

Mountain ash 50 

" laurel 56 

" oak 60 

Mulberry 49 

Mulching • • • 22 

Myrica 61 



177 

Natural and improved growth of trees 19 

Nature of cattle-disease 167 

Nemopanthes 56 

Nitrate of soda, analj'sis of 117 

Njssa 52 

Oak 59, 60 

Observations of T. Wheeler 75 

" on rainfall 3 

Ostrya 61 

Our homes 145 

Outbuildings handy 146 

Per cent of sugar in sap 78 

Perfect health, how obtained 145 

Picea • 67 

Pig-walnnt 58 

Pine 06, 67 

Pinus 66 

Pitch-pine 67 

Planting to stand 38 

Platanus 57 

Poison ivy or poison oak 45 

Poplar 65 

Populus 64, 65 

Post mortem in cattle-disease 162, 167 

Post spout 73 

Potato digger 170 

Present demand for maple sugar 102 

Prices of fertilizing materials 131 

Prickly ash 43 

Prof. C. E. Bessey on annual tree-growth 41 

Prunus 48 

Pyrus 50 

Quercus 59 

Rainfall at Concord 

" at Hanover, N. H 

" at Lunenburgh 7 

" at Mt. Washington 7 

" at Weirs, N. H 7 

' ' at Woodstock 7 

" increasing on Mt. Washington 6 

Raising trees from seed 28 

Rapid growth of trees 15 

Raspberrv 49 

Red ash.^ 57 

Red oak 60 

Red pine 67 

Reforesting with maples 75 

Report on cattle-disease 161 



178 

Rhodendron 56 

Rhumuus 44 

Rhus ■ 45 

Ribes 51 

River beech 61 

Robinia 47 

Rock maple 46 

Rose 50 

Rubus 49 

Rules for trimming forests 23 

Salix 63, 64 

Sambucus 53 

Sap-flow 86 

Sap produced on different sides of maples 98 

Sap-spouts 72 

Sassafras 57 

Scarlet or white maple 46 

Scientific experiments with maple 77 

Scrub oak 60 

Season notes on sugar-making 94 

Second-year treatment of seedlings 32 

Seedlings, easilj^ transplanted 37 

" how treated 33 

Seeds of trees, how to gather 69 

Shad-bush 50 

Shade trees about house 146 

Shagbark hickory 59 

Situation of trees that best run sap 87 

Sleeping-rooms in farm dwellings 147 

Small growth of trees 21 

Soft, or river maple 47 

Soil and situation 29 

Soil for trees 17 

Sources of maple sugar 84 

' ' of nitrogen 117 

' ' phosphoric acid 118 

Sowing tree-seeds ' 30 

Spice-bush 58 

Spirea 49 

Spruce 67 

Stable manures composted 109 

Staphylea 44 

Stinginess in farmers 151 

Strongylus micrurus 1 63 

Sugar maples 46 

Sugar plum 50 

Sugar-seasons 88 

Sumach • • ■ ■ 45 

Summer grape 43 

Summer in Michigan '. 27 



179 

Sweet fern 62 

Sycamore 57 

Table of rainfall at Lunenburgh 8 

" of rainfall on Mt. Washington and at Lunenburgh comp'd 9 

" of temperature at Lunenburgh 11 

Tamarack 68 

Tapping maples 72, 90 

Taxus 69 

Temperature 10 

Tendency to floods 4 

The box system 35 

The conifers 33 

The nursery 33 

Thorn. . . /. 50 

Tilia 44 

Timber investments best 12 

" in waste places 16 

Time to apply ferttlizers 125 

Transplanting large trees 40 

trees 39 

Tree culture 20 

" " for profit 12 

" " in Vermont 15 

" in beds 35 

' ' in boxes 35 

" of Vermont 43 

Trimming trees 41 

Tsuga 68 

Two Mrs. Tuckers 150 

Ulmus 58 

Underbrush 221 

Unhealthy sleeping-rooms 147 

Vaccinium 54 

Vacuum process in butter-making, advantages. of 158 

" " product of butter from 159 

Value of fertilizers 135 

Value of wood 42 

Variation of product by age of tree 89 

Viburnum 53 

Vei'mont lumber business ••••.... 26 

trees of 43 

Vitis 43 

Walnut 59 

Warm water tank for cattle 169 

What seeds germinate 31 

Wheat bran, anah'sis of 120 

Wheeler, Timothy, observations on maples 75 



180 

White ash 57 

" birch 62 

" oak 59 

" or scarlet maple i . . 46 

' ' spruce 67 

Willow ■ 63, 64 

Winter grapes 42 

Witch-hazel 51 

Woodbine 44 

Wood, value of 43 

Worthless fertilizers 130 

Yellow birch 62 

" dock puller 172 

X; 

Zanthox3'lum 43 



